Posts Tagged ‘bookmarks’
Advice about a “study trip” in Los Angeles?
Hello everyone! I’m an italian girl and I need your help! As you can see I don’t speak a good english and I want to improve it. I have the chance to take an English course at the University of California in LA for the entire month of March 2010. The problem is that in that period I have also lessons in Italy at the University. I have read that the Los Angeles public transport sucks, and so it’s difficult visit other places (San Francisco, San Diego, Las Vegas, Tijuana ..). Obviously the purpose of the trip would be to learn English, but I would also visit some place during the weekend! I need advice from someone who has already been there.. thank you!!
LA transport sucks internally. intercity travel is okay. going to SF, SD, LV, Tj is easy. so no worries. enjoy!
There are 365 Islands for Everyday of the Year
Just like France, one type of cheese for every day of the year, Angra has an island for every day of the year. Only one day every four years (leap year) lacks an Island. Well, nothing is perfect—but tries telling that to those who have visited Angra. It sure feels and looks like perfection.
Here the Beauty of nature begins with the color of the sea and the exuberant green of the Atlantic Forest. It is the perfect place for nautical sports, sub – aquatic fishing and long boat rides. Floating restaurants serving a varied menu of fish and seafood. In the golf course, guaranteeing leisure for lovers of those sports.
In addition to the 365 Islands, there is roughly one bench for every year in the A.D. Calendar. With just over 2000 beaches and 365 islands, you will never ever run out of new things to see. Believe it or not, Angra has a little piece of New York…well…they also have an island called “Long Island” (Ilha Grande). You have to see this one; it has history, lush wild greenery (Atlantic rainforest to be exact) beaches and more.
The history of Long Island and Angra as a whole began over 500 years ago with the Portuguese. They landed on Long Island on January 6, 1502, which was Kings’ Day. Because of this fact, the area has named Kings’ Creek, Which translates as “Angra dos Reis”. This little discovery by the Portuguese sparked a letter to Portugal by Amerigo Vespucio. He told how he had found a paradise with sweet smelling flowers and trees. He also spoke of the great numbers and varieties of bright colored birds. He refused to say too much more, because he feared they would not believe him. There are many houses that go almost as far as Amerigo’s time. One church goes back to the 1500’s and countless houses and churches date back to the 1600’s. It also has a famous Museum of Sacred arts; Angra has a lot of history!
Angra is located about 75 miles south of the city of Rio de Janeiro. The views are absolutely breathtaking with actual rainforests, crystal clear waters, sandy beaches, and more. Angra was immediately settled in the early 1500’s and has remained inhabited ever since, but much of the history was preserved. Angra was a popular port city and agricultural center. There are quite a number of island tours on schooners. You could spend a year in Angra and still not see all of it.
About the Author
Brazil Travel offers different packages for all kinds of Budget. If you want to discover more about Brazil vacations then it is a good idea to visit Brazil Travel.
. Brazil Travel offers different packages for all kinds of Budget. If you want to discover more about Brazil vacations then it is a good idea to visit Brazil Travel.
Help with a French project!?
Its pretty simple, for my exposé I have to pick any country that speaks French and talk about some interesting stuff about it. I want to do Switzerland, but pretty much me and 75% of the rest of the class is going to study abroad in Switzerland next year(the reason why they’re taking the course in the first place) so I want to do something different.
I want to do a country specifically in Europe. Maybe Luxembourg? Anyone know what to talk about if I will present Luxembourg or some other French-speaking European country?
EDIT.. maybe Monaco.. that seems interesting! Anyone know about Monaco?
Besides France in Euorope I’m not to good and what speaks French…I know there are others not in Europe you could easily do like Canada (Quebec), Even the US (Louisiana) but there is Monaco, Ivory Cost, Belgium, Congo,
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English courses offered by ESL Languages in Australia
Australia, the great, lesser-explored continent, is known for its beaches, surfing spots and tourist destinations. English is a universal language which is learned and spoken by a huge number of people across the globe. To learn English in Australia as part of a leisure or vacation tour is a superb way to combine holiday and education given the large number of tourist spots and undiscovered corners that can be found there. ESL Languages, a famous overseas language studies provider enables one to learn English in Australia in a fun-filled environment within a reasonable and affordable budget.
The various English courses provided by ESL’s partner schools include classes for all age groups. English Classes for the age groups 13 to 17 are conducted at ESL‘s partner school namely, the English summer school situated at Noosa. Noosa is a world-famous beach and surfing spot in Australia. The classes which are mostly conducted in the mornings have a maximum number of 15 students in each class. The total English coaching program comprises of 15 hours a week. Every participant has the option of a single room during the stay and will be provided boarding facilities. They will stay with a family in the locality who will take care of their needs. The English course in Australia is conducted from a minimum of 2 weeks, although many students choose to stay longer. As with all language learning, it takes time for knowledge to sink in… did you learn your first language in a week?
The English language courses for adults are conducted in the various cities in Australia by ESL Languages in partnership with the various local English schools in Australia. Some of the cities and other places in which these courses are conducted include Adelaide, Cairns, Gold Coast, Brisbane, Fremantle, Byron Bay, Darwin, Hobart, Margaret river, Melbourne, Noosa, Perth, Port Douglas, Sunshine Coast Maroochydore, Sydney Bondi, Sydney Manly, Sydney center and study Australia. One of the partner schools of ESL Language is the SACE at Adelaide city. The various English language courses offered by this school ranges from a minimum of ten weeks to a maximum of forty eight weeks. Each class has a maximum of thirteen to fifteen students. The boarding and lodging facilities are provided by the school itself. Also, various extracurricular activities and picnics are arranged by the school for its students during leisure period. ESL Languages arranges the trip and the English language program through its various English language learning packages. These English language learning packages include return airfare, boarding and lodging expense, course materials and travel guides.
About the Author
ESL – Language studies abroad
http://www.esl-languages.com
learn English in Australia , English schools in Australia .
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Teaching English Grammar through Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLTA) in the Context of Bangladesh
Teaching English Grammar through Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLTA) in the Context of Bangladesh.
Abstract
Communicative Language Teaching Approach is the most discussed of all language teaching-learning approaches in the last few decades. Many approaches are introduced, but these are rethought again and again whether a fusion is possible with CLTA. Any language without grammar can bring us back to the atavistic world of mere sounds and body language. This study aims at defining why and how grammar fits in CLTA in the perspective of Bangladesh.
Keywords
World Englishes, Grammar Translation Method (GT Method), Audio Lingual Method (ALM), Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLTA), Language Competency.
Background of the Study
Communicative Language Teaching Approach is the most talked approach in last few decades. Many approaches are introduced, but these are rethought again and again whether a fusion is possible with CLTA. A language without grammar can bring the modern people to the atavistic world of mere sounds and body language (sarwar, 2011). For this reason, why and how grammar fits in CLTA is a concern of this study. Though Grammar as a method of language teaching-learning has been followed since the Greek and Latin period (B.Kachru, 2006, World Englishes), yet its definition is vast and dynamic. Depending on one’s theoretical orientation, different linguists define grammar differently according to their own way. Geoffrey Leech et al (1982) consider grammar as an important component that relates phonology and semantics, or sound and meaning. Hudson (1992) opines that grammar embraces any kind of information about words since there are no boundaries around grammar. Grammar as consisting of morphology and syntax was believed by Huddleston (1988). Cobbett (1984) defines grammar as constituting rules and principles that help a person to make use of words or manipulate and combine. H.W. Fowler(1983) states grammar as the branch that deals with a language’s inflexions, with its phonetic system, and with the arrangements of words in sentences, George Snell (1649) thinks that Grammarians through grammar are getting language to a ‘fixed and immutable state’, James Barclay (1743) emphasizes on grammar claiming that writing will be improved with rules concerning the justness of expression…the force and harmony of certain phrases, the proper meaning of words, their connection one with another, and the necessary skill of placing them all in regular order (p-660). Rutheford (1987) defines grammar as “a necessary component of any language teaching programme” (p.9), and thus, he further says that it plays an important role in language teaching. However, the focus on grammar in language teaching was challenged with the emergence of teaching methodologies based on different learning theories and in the context of socio-economic infrastructure of a country. Such a challenge influenced not only the content and the curriculum in language teaching of the particular context, but also the implication for teaching grammar. Undergraduate education of Bangladesh is no exception in this regard. So, a fresh and revised look at the role of grammar was necessary causing linguists and language educators to rethink the status and strategy of grammar in language teaching and learning. Thus, a constant debate is led among language educators and linguists regarding the nature and type of grammar instruction aiming at how second languages should be taught or learned.
The Problem to be addressed
In spite of a recent soaring interest in teacher’s belief in the systems of mainstream education studies, the beliefs of ESL teachers about grammar and the influence of such beliefs on their intentions, decisions and action in classroom practices remain relatively unexplored. The present study would seek to fill the knowledge gap left by insufficient researches in this area. More precisely, this study would investigate teachers and learners belief of grammar teaching and examine the congruence and incongruence of their beliefs with the classroom practices in undergraduate English in the context of Bangladesh. It would also examine the contextual existing and feasible factors that support and impede in materializing with a view to establishing the beliefs into practices, and the accommodative strategies teachers would adopt when coping with contextual constraints as undergraduate education is the most crucial junction in the context of Bangladeshi education system.
Considering various second language teaching methods, teaching grammar through Communicative Language Teaching Approach is the most talked. Though it may be assumed that the role played by the Grammar and the role of communicative language Teaching are the two opposite poles, but actually these comments are only misconceptions. Fusion of these two terms is needed for the better performances and from utilitarian point of view. Fusion of Grammar and CLT is to be rethought from Bangladeshi perspective in line with present world context.
Teaching grammar in the undergraduate level through appropriate language teaching approach in Bangladeshi perspective is to be re-considered as the students/learners learn grammar every year till their Higher Secondary level and read English as a compulsory subject in undergraduate syllabus of Bangladeshi Universities, they learn almost the same grammatical items every year, still they cannot use it properly and go for some commercial language canters to practice communications. If the grammar is taught with Communicative Language Teaching approaches (CLTA), they could straightly go to national and international job markets to prove their competency. Now to find out the possible ways to teach grammar through CLTA are to be defined in such a way that the language teachers can forget their traditional role of active instructor and educator, instead the students role have to be emphasized keeping in mind the classroom size in Bangladesh, teachers quality, salary, resource constraints, economic and infra-structural conditions, possibility of teachers training from appropriate CLT concept, tendency of changing syllabuses by the policy makers, learners age, interest, motivations, needs etc. in Bangladesh. Major role can be played by the Teachers of Bangladesh if they can come out from the traditional concept of teaching grammar as an instructor and become a Facilitator, a suitable role for Communicative Language Teaching Approach. Teachers can work in partnership with students and thus can help them in raising their language competency. Learning grammar, which has been an unpleasant and phoebia for the students since the teaching-learning English language has been started in Bangladesh. Van Ek (1975) stresses on ‘A teacher who is a facilitator tends to be more student-centered and less dominant in the classroom than in other approaches. The facilitator may also take the role of mentor or coach rather than director’. The British Council (Campaign in Asian countries) identifies the need of functional syllabus based on ‘communicative acts such as making introductions, making requests, expressing opinions, requesting information, refusing, apologizing, giving advice, persuading’ which is often used in communicative language teaching. As teaching-learning of grammar to ESL/EFL learners is beyond question, and as it is to be done in an attractive and acceptable way remembering economical and infra-structural condition of Bangladesh as well as the class size, belief of teachers-students relationship, average facilities provided by Bangladeshi government and the educational institutions. The remarks of Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) regarding the CLT syllabus can be remembered and rethought.
a. Meaning (function) is emphasized
b. Contextualization is important
c. Language learning is learning to communicate
d. Language is created through repeated trials and errors
e. Fluency is primary whereas accuracy is secondary.
Wu (1998) suggests that structural activities in textbooks need to be supplemented by communicative activities. Accordingly, five activities are suggested (as in the PhD research ‘A Communicative Approach to Teaching Grammar: Theory and Practice’ by Siaw-Fong Chung, 2005): games, natural contexts, activities that balance skills, personalization, and adjustment of teacher role.
In Bangladesh, what are being followed is obsessed with previous and traditional structural method. In line with the contents, the way of teaching should also be reconsidered. Teacher’s active inclusion and involvement in students learning activities and passive role in giving instructions can accelerate in creating the CLT teaching-learning environment. The traditional concept of teacher-student relationship should be changed from learner’s early stage. A tension free friendly relationship is essential and a pre-condition for creating CLT approaches in Bangladesh. Learners involvement in the classroom depends on the removal of their psychological phoebia came from shyness or from other sources. Implementing more learner’s activities such as educative puzzles, games and sports, quizzes, brain works, pair revision, scheduled open discussion etc can help in making a CLT environment. The learners should be given the importance on achieving fluency at first, and then accuracy will come automatically if selective grammar items are taught in their learning progress. A teacher may try to enhance the multidimensional intelligence such as : ‘linguistic intelligence, logical and mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and naturalist intelligence’, Gardner (1999). These can be enticed and aroused by selective texts in their syllabus and some active roles played by the teachers to activate student’s active role. Halliday (1992) ascribes the means to perform the CLT approach through some functions as proponent instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative and representational. In Bangladesh, all prevalent facilities of developed countries may not be available. So, the measures to be in taken in implementing CLTA in Bangladesh may differ. The role of teachers in Bangladesh, especially in rural areas are to be trained to come out from their cocoons of traditional methods to cope with CLTA. Games of Bangladeshi taste and type in English can be innovated for creating and igniting initial interest. Song with language background can be practised. Long or mini dialogues can be used where the essence of motivation will be prominent. Peer revisions, works and discussions along with groups can be utilised carefully with the mastery of teacher’s role. Evaluation can be made at first by the students by their pair work and then by teachers. Teachers must try to increase the analytical strength at first and then can proceed the process of evaluating among them by them. As a facilitator, a teacher can be trained by experts how to achieve it. Oral communication activities can be encouraged from controlled and guided to freer communication and environment. Questions and answers can be encouraged from the learners own experience. Teachers may play their role as ‘Needs Analyst’, ‘A Counsellor’ or ‘A Group Manager’ or ‘A Classroom Manager’. Teachers should not wait for the formal teaching rather can start from the beginning so that learners can be psychologically prepared for the fluency and performance first and then accuracy and perfection. Learners should be always reminded that ‘communicative competence‘is the first priority;’ language competence’ will come after that.
In CLT approach, student’s role is usually active. In Bangladeshi perspective, Syllabuses of different public universities, and in all undergraduate levels (General education, Technical Education, Madrassa Education ) the variations of syllabuses might be one of the vital reasons for not reforming syllabuses on the basis of meeting the demand of the practical world. All the texts included in the existing syllabuses may not reflect the aim of the communicative syllabus. Though no relevant research has been done for identifying the actual condition lying in the texts, it can be assumed that most of the grammar activities in the text books of the stated level still feature the traditional set pattern rather conforming to the principles of the communicative syllabus. Though some parts of the textbooks attempt to integrate the communicative elements, most exercises are mainly structural with the inclusion of grammar-rule explanation that shows the affinity of the earlier Grammar-Translation Method. Grammar items should be chosen keeping the view in the mind that it must reflect the concept of CLTA so that the teaching-learning process can be proved useful in the present context.
Objectives of the Study:
Diverse language teaching methods have been applied from time to time in undergraduate education in Bangladesh. Many critics assume that Grammar Translation Method could not continue to hold its popularity as ‘It requires few specialized skills on the part of the teachers. Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communicative abilities, so, students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations, and rote exercises’ Brown (1994:53). After that, direct method became popular as a method of teaching English language especially in the first two decades of twentieth century. Grammar was taught inductively but it could not sustain as it was a method meant for short-term and quick success based on some set things. Audio lingual method appeared in a context for short-term use during world war. It based on some drilling of set things and continued to become popular in the middle of twtienth century till 1960′s. Situational language teaching became popular in parallel with Audio lingual method and grammar rules were basically taught by oral practices. As the theory focused on achieving accuracy through oral practices and mistakes were discouraged, this method soon gave a question of sustaining among the linguists. Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLTA) appears as a challenge as it differs from the other methods in many respects. According to Hymes (as cited in Larseen-Freeman, 2000), communicative competence is “knowing when and how to say what to whom”(p-121). According to David Nunan the communicative approach to language teaching is a cluster of language teaching techniques and methodologies, it is not a single methodology.
Dissatisfaction caused by situational approach and structuralism, Communicative Language Teaching was appeared in 1970′s and supported by Council of Europe and linguists of United States of America particularly from California. ‘However, in the 1970s, particularly in California, a new type of pedagogy arose and started becoming popular in response to the greatly increased number of ESL learners, who outnumbered native English speakers in some school districts. Many of these learners knew grammar rules but could not use the target language communicatively, and others urgently needed immediate survival competency in English. The related humanist approaches were also developed in the late 1970s and 1980s as communicative activities designed to give learners positive feelings toward the instructional process so that language acquisition was facilitated.’ (Lawrence Eribaum Associates, NJ, 2002). The focus came on the point of the learners that they knew the grammar rules but could not use them in the target language. This gave a new thought of urgency of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach. Yalden (1987:61) focuses on CLT, as a summary on the essence, ‘It is based on the notion of the learners as communicators, naturally endowed with the ability to learn languages. It seeks to provide learners with the target language system. It is assumed that learners will have to prepare to use the target language (orally and in written form) in many predictable and unpredictable acts of communication which arise both in classroom interaction and in real-world situations, whether concurrent with language training or subsequent to it’.
After introducing CLT in many countries, many English textbooks were designed attempting to accommodate the expectations of the communicative syllabus. When grammar teaching is concerned, CLT focuses on “communicative proficiency rather than mere mastery of structures” (Richards and Rogers, 1986:64). ‘Communicative language teaching (CLT) refers to both processes and goals in classroom learning’ (Savignon, 2002). The central theoretical concept in communicative language teaching is ‘‘communicative competence,” a term introduced into discussions of language use and second or foreign language learning in the early 1970s (Habermas 1970; Hymes 1971; Jakobovits 1970; Savignon 1971). Competence is defined in terms of the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning and looks to both psycholinguistic and sociocultural perspectives in second language acquisition (SLA) research to account for its development (Savignon 1972, 1997). Identification of learners’ communicative needs provides a basis for curriculum design (Van Ek 1975). So, curriculum design is very important in Communicative Language Teaching Approach.
Some critics say that there seem a conflict between Communicative Language teaching and Grammar because of their ultimate goal in terms of results such as fluency and accuracy. But the remarks in favour of the contradictions between Grammar and Communicative Approach are irrelevant and the search for the proper way to teach grammar through Communicative Language Teaching now has become a prime concern in many countries. It is believed that ‘…the more thoroughly a learner masters the grammatical system of the language, the more effectively he or she can use this language for communication’ (Sayeedur Rahman, 2005). The aim of learning English is to be able to communicate in the official and business world in changed perspective of the world. Since it is not needed as a language under compulsion in Bangladesh from anthropologist and ethnographic point of view, the main target is for communication which can convert our population as resource and manpower in the world economic market. Hence, among the most used language skills are Listening and speaking both in and outside the classroom. Speaking is an interactive process of constructing ‘Meaning’ that involves producing, receiving and processing information (Florez, 1999; Brown, 1994), Kumaravadivelu (1999). So, the time has come to reconsider the selection and use of grammar terms in the changed needs of Bangladesh. The research is very important because it demonstrates discourse bridges, the relationship between language structure and the immediate or the recent social context where it will be used. Here, classroom is a ‘Mini society’-an exercise centre of predictable and unpredictable situations with its own activities and rules. Pennington (2002) hints of “action grammar” in which grammar of language should meet the need of real use: “it must be interactive in nature and relative to specific discourse communicates and their communicative practices” (Fall 2005 Issues in EFL Vol.3 No.2 187). So, students usually should produce sounds, gestures, writing for each other using basic grammatical structures for purposeful actions.
Penny Ur, in her interview with The British Council in Chennai, London, Delhi and Israel, suggests some factors that can be useful for CLTA. These are considered as TacitMyths of CLTA. According to her, ‘Some amount of explicit teaching was necessary to correct, explain and raise awareness about grammar usage. Students may talk and listen but unless explicitly taught grammar, they may not speak correctly.’ She added that solution lies in reaching a balance between communicative grammar and theoretical grammar…. Instead of fill-in-the-blank type exercises, students needed creative exercises to encourage original thinking’. She also adds ‘Fluency and accuracy are two factors which determine the success of the students in the future’. She further says ‘Students should not be asked to learn lists of words’ and ‘Memorizing chunks of language such as How do you do? And its proper response, idioms, phrases, proverbs and the rest, equips students with a readymade vocabulary of grammatical combinations that could be adapted to suit different situations.’ About grammar, she continues ‘Grammar is an arbitrary system, so the more we talk the better it is because that’s the only way non-native speakers can pick up language and grammar’
‘In terms of language teaching methodology, the communicative approach provides the learners with an opportunity to use language for communication purposes without focusing on accuracy’ (Bygate, 2001). The aims of the communicative approach are (a) ‘to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and (b) develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication’ (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 66). Regarding Communicative Language Teaching, Howatt (1984) suggests the possible mix of Grammar and Structure with Communicative Language Teaching Approach. According to him, ‘…attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching…. advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself’. So, mix of Grammar and Communicative Language Teaching Approach can be considered a fruitful method for the desired level.
In fact, the linguists and the researchers felt that the students are not learning enough realistic English language. Despite knowing the rules of English grammar, they could not communicate well in social environment using proper social language with expressions. English seems to be confined in bookish knowledge; learners are not getting the benefits of English for communication in their real life. The language competency seems to be absent. The aim of teaching- learning English is not achieved the desired goal.
As Steven Pinker explains Chomsky’s Language theory, he classifies the language competency through four parts of competency level. These also reflect the importance of teaching grammar for achieving language competency. He clarifies these as following:
1. Grammatical competence is how well a person has learned that features and rules of the language. This includes vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence formation. The main question is: How well does a person understand English grammar?
2. Sociolinguistic competence is how well a person speaks and is understood in various social contexts. This depends on factors such as status of those speaking to each other, the purpose of the interaction, and the expectations of the interaction. The main question is: how socially acceptable is the person’s use of English in different settings?
3. Discourse competence is how well a person can combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve different types (genres) of speaking or writing. The main question is: How well does one properly combine all the languages elements to speak or write in English?
4. Strategic competence is how well the person uses both verbal forms and non-verbal communication to compensate for lack of knowledge in the other three competencies.
The existing condition of the stated level is to be analyzed through scientific method. If any actual CLT is being practiced, that is to be identified and would be analyzed for further studies to mark its’ actual version, adaptability, from utilitarian point of view. Howatt (1984) classified CLT into ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ versions. Communicative features are the vital concern of the strong version on the other side; the weak version promotes the integration of structural practice into the communicative elements. If the former could be described as ‘learning to use’ English, the latter entails ‘using English to learn it’. Howatt (1984: 279). This research can include the feasibility of introducing the view that both structural and communicative elements can have a major role to play in EFL and ESL teaching in the Asian setting especially in Bangladesh. One of the most probable reasons of this feasible implementation is that may be the traditions and norms of practicing the structural syllabuses in Bangladesh for last three decades can not be changed radically, rather can play a role of active agent or a catalyst. Another reason may be ‘…communicative proficiency will become easier to achieve only when one has grasped the necessary knowledge of language (such as grammar). For societies whose first (and second) language is not English, there is still a need for structural practices so that the foundation of linguistic knowledge can be built up before further’ (William Littlewood, English Centre, University of Hong Kong, 2006). So, presence of grammar in CLTA is indispensible because ‘…the notion that grammar and communication are incompatible opposites is based on serious misconceptions about the nature of language and language use’ (William Littlewood, 2006), and ‘The notion that an individual can develop anything other than a rudimentary communication ability without an extensive mastery of the grammatical system is absurd (David Wilkins in the journal Applied Linguistics, 1981). So, it is necessary to find out possible and effective bridge between grammar and CLTA, which is the prime concern of the present research. The more elaborately a learner masters the grammar of a language, the more effectively he or she can use the targeted language for communication. This position was strongly established by David Wilkins, whose work in the 1970s provided one of the major impetuses to the communicative approach i.e. ‘The notion that an individual can develop anything other than a rudimentary communication ability without an extensive mastery of the grammatical system is absurd ‘ ( Applied Linguistics, 1981).
Some research works have already been done regarding the communicative approach of teaching grammar in some Asian countries specially in China {a survey carried out by Maley (1986:104)}, in Taiwan {Siaw-Fong Chung (2005:33-50)}, in Nepal {Koirala, Sanjel et al (NELTA Vol. 10, 2005 )}, in Malaysia ( Siti Rohani Bt Md. Zain, PhD Thesis, 2007), in India {Annika Hohenthal(1998)}. These researches do not reflect the environment of Bangladesh, because the position of English Language in Bangladesh is not same like these countries. Even with the most nearest neighbouring country India. In a small country like Bangladesh, the scope of using other language instead English was very limited from emotional and utilitarian point of view. India is a vast country having a huge variation of language difference, Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore these types of developing countries have to depend on their tourism and resources and people from different countries have migrated over there. Naturally, as a part of their integration and political unity, English has been chosen emphatically. So, the scenario is quite different in Bangladesh. But the things are changing with the emphasis given by the government emphasizing on a new era of using skilled manpower as well as exploring the scope of multinational jobs. Now time has come to re-consider English language teaching approach in Bangladesh, because undergraduate syllabuses do not reflect the Communicative Language Teaching Approach rather these still reflect the structural approach. The rise of so many local and foreign English skills training centers are indications of that. If the policy makers would give attention, FM method, Saifurs, Mentors etc. could not promote the language courses as the replacement to the undergraduate English courses of universities. English is needed in Bangladesh not solely for internal use, rather mostly for international use. Bangladesh, as an underdeveloped and overpopulated country of the third world can make her human resources useful in the world perspective, where she is still facing a hard competition and sometimes lagging behind in terms of knowing useful communicative English. The recent government policies can accelerate the Bangladeshi linguists’ endeavours in innovating a right approach in the right moment. The approaches to be implemented in Bangladesh should be based on local conditions considering the practical factors.
Significance of the Study
‘Bangladeshi students are learning English from utilitarian point of view, rather than integrative motivation’ (Asian EFL Journal, June, 2005). So, it is necessary to find out the appropriate approach for Bangladeshi students. It involves to analyze the feasible texts and techniques befitting Bangladeshi socio-economic perspectives because ‘An approach is a set of co-relative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning…it describes the subject matter to be taught…where method is an overall plan’ (Richards & Rogers, p-14-30, 2002)
The history of English teaching in Bangladesh is rather less smooth in comparison to that with neighboring countries as it had to face some problems. Before the independence of Bangladesh, status of English language was tagged with the crucial policy taken by the authority who tried to impose their mother tongue as national language of Bangladesh. So, the attention of the Bangladeshi educational policy makers was to stay with Bangla language, perhaps, they didn’t find the ample scope to improve the English or could not go for researches as the concentration was from emotional point of view. After liberation in 1971, the scenario started changing. After the freedom war of 1971, Bangladeshi curriculum in undergraduate levels were mostly based on English as Urdu was hated, and Bangla text books were not prepared in a large scale. So, the importance was given on Grammar-Translation method as the policy makers were influenced and pre-occupied by structural methods. The syllabuses of secondary, higher secondary and undergraduate levels were influenced purely based on by the extracts or texts from English literature and language ruled by grammar. World trend of CLT was almost absent in that time. The emotional implement of ‘The Bangla Procholon Ain-1987′ was a shock to the progress of English. It actually restricted the use of English in any type of official communication and correspondences and thus English was ignored from the socio-cultural domain. The policy makers were influenced by the BPA act, 1987 because it influenced as ‘background to the policy decisions and the current status of English’ (Banu & Sussex, 2001). The necessity of learning English language was felt tremendously and so, in the year 1989, English was introduced as a compulsory subject in colleges and universities covering the Higher Secondary and Undergraduate syllabuses. The necessity and urge of improving English was felt much more than ever. The syllabuses were mostly based on structural type followed by Grammar-translation method and after that Situational method. The new era of English flourished in the beginning of twenty-first century, i.e. after 2001, because of changes taken place in the policies of teaching English in neighboring and in many other countries. The growth of the jobs in the private sectors and in multinational companies created the demand of the persons who know effective English practically needed for communication across the national borders. Hence, the emergence of the Communicative Language Teaching Approaches in Asian countries has given a new thought of rethinking on the policy to be implemented because the graduated people could not use English effectively. It is felt in Bangladesh lately, but it was felt earlier in many countries since many of these learners knew grammar rules but could not use the target language communicatively, and others urgently needed immediate survival competency in English.’(Rogers, 2002). Emotional attachment, socio-economic conditions, post liberation war unstable conditions, restlessness in mind-setup regarding political issues hindered the way of improving educational sector in Bangladesh as well as English also.
Thus the concept of teaching English grammar seems to have been provided with the idea of the failure of the cited methods to teach English grammar effectively in Bangladesh. For this reason, this study emphasizes how teaching grammar through communicative language teaching approach (CLTA) is functioning in the context of Bangladesh.
Research Questions:
This paper seeks to understand teaching grammar through communicative language teaching approach (CLTA) in the context of Bangladesh. Despite many teaching approaches of English language, CLTA seems, at present, an appreciable method very often discussed among the academics and is heard as a popular language teaching approach in the globe. Actually students in Bangladesh from class 01 to class 12 have English courses on their syllabus but unfortunately most of them are remaining below the competent level with a very few exceptions. At the same time, even many university graduates cannot reach at least the communicative level of speaking and writing English language using correct grammar. In such a situation this paper attempts to address the possible problems causing the barriers for learning English grammar in Bangladesh with the following questions.
a) Is teaching English Grammar important for the students at the undergraduate level?
b) Are Grammar-Translation methods, Audio lingual method, Berlitz Method (Direct Method) and so on not effective to teach English grammar?
c) Does the undergraduate syllabus have sufficient elements to satisfy the present need in the field of communication?
d) Are the students capable enough to learn grammar clearly for communicative perspective?
e) Do the teachers have sufficient knowledge and adaptability to accept teaching grammar through CLTA? What role is being played by the teacher, a facilitator or a dictator?
f) Is the policy of Bangladesh suitable to nourish the technique of teaching grammar through Communicative Language Teaching Approach?
g) Are the socio-economic and infra-structural condition impediments for this approach?
Research Methodology:
Multiple methods would be used in the investigation including interviews, classroom observations, journal writings and analysis of lesson plans. Data would be analyzed and categorized for common themes and patterns in the undergraduate level of English teaching including various sectors under Public Universities, National University and Madrassa level. The central theme of the analysis would highlight the interactive relationship between beliefs, knowledge and instructional contexts in teachers’ personal framework of teaching grammar and learners’ inherent belief in the practical context.
The primary & secondary data would be sought on the basis of practical experience. Basically the secondary data will be considered as per the set standard of the Native & Non-Native English experts. The method may include Questionnaire with closed and open type among controlled group after data are being selected randomly. For a smooth study, questionnaire would be distributed among teachers and learners. Likart scale may be used in setting methodology. The Questionnaire would consist of demographic information and their statement. Obviously, it will be made clear to the respondents before their answer in a scientific way. There will be followed a standard version of questionnaire for perfect data collection. The whole data analysis will be furnished through SPSS version 18.0
Conclusion:
The history of English Language in Bangladesh is not new. Though, Bangladesh had been a colony of The Great Britain as were India and Pakistan, and again a part of Pakistan, the scenario of English is quite different here. ‘The role of English in Bangladesh is purely functional as English is used as an international link language. Unlike India, English is not used as an interpersonal and inter-institutional communication and there is seemingly no possibility of English becoming the lingua franca in Bangladesh’ ((Asian EFL Journal, June, 2005). Since the socio-economic conditions are different than India and Pakistan, the need of English is important for the international perspective than national need. In Bangladesh, the role of grammar in teaching-learning English at undergraduate level is to be redefined so that, the learners can get the befitting knowledge in the new era of e-world of national and international job market and at the same time, the prestige and standard of English education at the stated level would be renovated and up-dated.
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About the Author
Alam M. Sarwar is an English faculty at the Universiti Malaysia Sabah and working at Centre for Promotion of Knowledge and Language Learning, Labuan International Campus. Previously, he had been teaching English in universities in Bangladesh and in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia since 1996. He possesses an M.A. in English and is currently pursuing a PhD in Linguistics in Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh. He has written some books on English Grammar, Writing Skills and on Literature for the undergraduate and graduate English students. E-mail: Sarwar@ums.edu.my
South Africa Places of Interest
Beaches
From KwaZulu-Natal to the Wild Coast, from the Eastern Cape to the West Coast, South Africa boasts more than 3 000km of coastline. Pristine beaches, fishing communities, golf estates, luxury hotels and guest-houses dot the landscape as you explore the marine wonderland that is South Africa.
Bird Tours
With nearly a thousand bird species, no wonder South Africa has become one of the Worlds bird hot spots. Bunji Jumping
Bloukrans River Bridge – IT IS OFFICIAL – You can now bungi-jump the highest commercial bungi jump in the world, usurping the position previously held by Vic Falls. The bridge is 216 m high but the jump is only about 160 m. You jump from the arch support of the bridge, not from the road and getting there and back is an experience in itself. After the jump you are winched back up to the bridge.
Cango Caves
The Cango Caves lie in the Swartberg Mountain Range in a limestone belt measuring 1,5km in width and almost 16km in length. The present tourist route extends for 1,2km into the cave, with a further 4,1km being kept closed to the public for conservation reasons. Cango Wildlife Ranch
The Cango Wildlife Ranch is situated just outside Oudtshoorn in the Little Karoo, and since its inception in 1977 it has grown to become one of the largest tourist attractions of the region. In 1988 the Ranch developed a facility known as Cheetahland, within its boarders, in an effort to promote its goal of making the public aware of endangered species. This unique facility is home to a large variety of big cats, which can be viewed from an elevated “catwalk” providing an uninhibited view of these magnificent creatures. Cape of Good Hope Reserve
Located at the southern most tip of the peninsula is the nature reserve, with fantastic panoramic views of the Cape of Good Hope from the viewing area, reached by cable car. The area has a dry and desolate look but this is deceptive as more than half the flowering plants of the peninsula, like the protea grow here. The reserve is also home to zebra, baboon, ostrich and eland. En route from Cape Town, the penguin colony at Boulder’s Bay is worth stopping for as is Simon’s Town a naval town and the country’s third oldest European settlement. Cape Town
Cape Town is the most fabulously diverse and vibrant city, with great natural beauty, fascinating architecture, great restaurants, bars and nightlife. Whether you hike to the top or take the cable car, the views from Table Mountain are astounding. See the famous ‘dassies (rock rabbits) scampering aound the rocks and also the imposing Lion’s Head and Devil’s Peak which together with Table Mountain form the Cape Peninsula. Take a ferry from the V & A Waterfront to Robben Island to see the tiny cell which held Nelson Mandela for almost three decades. Cape Winelands
Just an hour’s drive from Cape Town are the beautiful towns of Stellenbosch, Paarl, Franschhoek and Constancia in the heart of the wine producing area. Visit some of the beautiful wine estates and taste some of the best wines in the world. Cradle of Humankind
Declared a World Heritage Site, the Cradle of Humankind west of Johannesburg includes, among its numerous sites, the Sterkfontein Caves, where anthropologist Dr Robert Broom discovered the skull of Mrs. Ples, a three-million year-old hominid, in 1936. At the time she was thought to be the closest evidence of the “missing link” to be found.
Drakensberg Mountains
Recently proclaimed a World Heritage Site the mighty Drakensberg Mountains offer panoramic views of towering peaks, waterfalls and sparkling rock pools. Prime sites include Cathedral Peak, Monks Cowl, Champagne Castle, Giant’s Castle, Cathkin Peak and the geological phenomenon of the Drakensberg Ampitheatre, all of which are scattered across this majestic range. One of the most breath taking sights is Tugela Falls where the river rushes for over a mile over sheer cliffs and cascades through a dramatic gorge to the valley floor. Durban
Durban is a holiday makers paradise with a sub tropical climate and carnival atmosphere. The amusement area is known as the Golden Mile which actually stretches for 4 miles and offers endless attractions and entertainment. There is a rapidly expanding harbour-front area to explore as well as the vibrant Victoria Street Market at the centre of Durban’s Indian community. Garden Route
Whether approached from Cape Town or from Port Elizabeth, in the east, the Garden Route holds visitors spellbound with its abundance of rivers, spectacular mountain passes, lagoons, lakes, beaches and birdlife.The highlights of this amazing area are too numerous to mention but a few include Tsitskamma National Park- a area of ancient forest with hiking trails, and a long coastal plateau which stretches five kilometres out to sea. The park is alive with fynbos, wild orchids, otters, baboons small buck and over 280 bird species.
The Storms River area offers a host of activities from abseling, canopy walking, hiking and black water tubing. With its sucession of bays, white sandy beaches, spectacular cliffs and tidal pools it is not suprising that some of the premier coastal resorts are along the Garden Route. Greater St Lucia Wetland Park
On the northern coast of KwaZulu-Natal this massive park has recently been declared a World Heritage Site. Extending over 680 acres of wilderness there are at least five different ecosystems represented including a vast lake, coral reefs, a sub tropical wilderness, reed covered islands swamps and towering dunes. With such diverse ecology the park is home to all forms of wildlife including 6000 white pelicans, 800 hippos, 1200 crocodiles as well as turtles, flamingos, shark, whales and dolphins. The Greater St Lucia Wetlands lie 136 miles north of Durban. Hermanus
The local whale crier of Hermanus, rings his bell to alert people that the whales have arrived. From May/June through to November these massive and fascinating creatures come close to the shore offering an exhilarating sight. Highgate Ostrich farm
Highgate, established almost 100 years ago by the Hooper family, is a large Ostrich Farming concern producing primarily feathers and ostrich by-products. Highgate opened to the public in 1938 and since then many thousands of visitors from all over the world have been entertained on the establishment.
Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park
The Hluhluwe and Umfolozi reserves were founded in 1895 and are the oldest such sanctuaries in Africa. It was here that the world- acclaimed Operation Rhino was introduced during the 1960s, successfully capturing and relocating white rhino to havens within South Africa and abroad. As a result, this country’s white rhino population is now 12 times the 1960 count of 500. Today a single park, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi is focusing its efforts on saving the endangered black rhino, whose number in Africa has dwindled from 14 000 to a pitiful 2 550 in the past decade. You’ll find at least a fifth of the world’s black and white rhino population here. Hout Bay
Hout Bay is a charming fishing village overlooked by majestic mountains, it combines the sophistication of the Riviera with the rugged beauty of Africa. As well as being a tranquil haven to relax or swim there are numerous restaurants & cosy pubs.Visit THE WORLD OF BIRDS or hop on to a cruise boat out of the harbour to see Seal Island & the bird life on offer. The famous Fish on the Rocks, English Fish & Chips, at the end of the harbour boasts the best calamari, Snoek & chips in Cape Town. Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens
Kirstenbosch was established in 1913 to promote & conserve the indigenous flora of southern Africa. Situated on the eastern slopes of Table Mountain, the estate covers 528 hectares and includes both a cultivated garden and nature reserve. There are several trails through natural forests & access to Table Mountain is possible via marked routes up, Skeleton Gorge & Nursery ravine. The restaurant is open daily, as well as a book & curio shop to browse through. Every Sunday from December to March the Gardens host Summer Sunset Concerts, featuring a wide variety of music both local & classical. Take along a picnic as this is something no visitor to the Cape should miss. Kruger National Park
Covering an area of nearly five million acres, the Kruger National Park is the largest reserve in South Africa and home to an amazing variety of animals including the ‘big five’- lion, leopard, elephant, rhino and buffalo. Whether staying in the park in a private reserve or just close by, the best way to explore is on a dawn or dusk game drive with an experienced ranger who impart their knowledge and experience. Safaris in an open topped jeep, or on foot can afford amazing close up views of the worlds greatest variety of wildlife. The park is approximately 220 miles from Johannesburg and can be reached by scheduled flights, chartered planes into the private reserves or by road. Madikwe Game Reserve
As South Africa’s fourth largest game reserve, Madikwe is home to 31 species of some 10,000 animals including the ‘big five’, wild dog, white and black rhino, hyena and cheetah. The area comprises rocky ravines, mountain plateaux, open grassland, savannas and riverine forests. The malaria free reserve is just 4 miles south of the Botswana boarder and about a four hour drive north of Johannesburg. Marakele National Park
The Marakele National Park lies in the heart of the Waterberg Mountains and has an impressive variety of wildlife due to its location in the zone between the dry western and moister eastern regions of South Africa. The park is characterised by contrasting majestic mountain landscapes, grass clad rolling hills and deep valleys. Rare finds of yellow wood and cedar trees, 16 foot high cycads and tree ferns, are some of the plant species found here. All the large game species from elephant and rhino to the big cats as well as an amazing variety of birds, including the endangered Cape vultures are to be found in the park. The malaria free reserve is 155 miles north of Johannesberg. Midlands Meander
Only an hours drive west of Durban is the well sign posted arts and crafts route known as the Midlands Meander. With over 100 places to visit, ranging art studios to rustic pubs. Visit the Natal Railway Museum, a magnet for steam enthusiasts, Midmar Dam a centre for watersports or the area of Dargle, for super flyfishing. Namaqualand
Every Spring (August to September), the Northern Cape comes alive with vast fields of daisies in a natural splash of vivid colour. Fed by winter rains, the flower grounds of Namaqualand are a photographer’s delight. Outeniqua Choo-Tjoe
The Outeniqua Choo-Tjoe is the last steam hauled scheduled passenger train operating in Southern Africa and runs daily between George and Knysna. The route of the Choo-Tjoe is from George, via Victoria Bay, Wilderness, Sedgefield and Goukamma to Knysna and encompasses some of the most spectacular scenery in South Africa in the heart of the Garden Route Lake District.
Pilanesberg National Park
The park offers a malaria free game experience with over 8000 large animals, including the ‘big five’ and over 350 species of birds. The game sanctuary is covered with grasslands and granite outcrops fashioned from a desolate volcanic crater in the late seventies when long vanished wildlife was re introduced. Just 123 miles from Johannesburg close to the Sun City Resort, Pilansberg can be reached by road or flights into Sun City. Port Elizabeth
The gateway to the Garden Route, is the ‘Friendly City’ of Port Elizabeth. Founded in 1820 when some 4000 British families settled here to start a new life, the city is replete with their graceful period houses. With miles of wide sandy beaches it is a magnet for swimmers, surfers and sailors.
Robben Island
A short cruise from Cape Town ‘s V&A Waterfront by ferry, this legendary island is a must-see on any newcomer’s itinerary. This is where Nelson Mandela and his comrades were imprisoned for decades during the Apartheid era. Former inmates will take you on an insightful tour of the prison grounds. This historical island is now a World Heritage Site and a proclaimed nature conservation area. Shark Diving
South Africa was one of the first Countries Worldwide to make the Great White a protected species. We can offer you the chance to get extremely close to these awesome animals. You can go on a Shark dive or alternatively just view them from the safety of the boat.
Soweto
Just South of Johannesburg lies Soweto – the largest of South Africa ‘s “townships”. This vibrant city is home to some 2 million people and a number of historical sights. A typical visit to Soweto includes a stop at a traditional shebeen (drinking hall), where you can savor local beer, food and hospitality, as well as a visit to the homes where Nobel laureates Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu once lived.
Table Mountain
Over the centuries it has become one of South Africa’s most famous landmarks. The steep cliffs and rocky outcrops of the mountain play home to a number of plants and animals. The mountain is home to approximately 1470 species of plants. Take a guided walk on one of the many routes or simply ride the cable car to the top – it will be one of your lasting memories of SA.
The Addo Elephant National Park
Deep within the shadows of the dense valley of the Sundays River Region, lies the Addo Elephant Park. It is a sanctuary for over 200 elephants who belong to an isolated gene pool, and are therefore smaller than other African elephant, with a reddish hue. The area is home to the unique flightless dung beatle found almost exclusively in Addo, and given right of way on the roads in the park. The Baxter Theatre
The Baxter is a World Class South African theatre situated in Rondebosch at the foot of Devils Peak. The exciting and diverse artistic programme ranges from celebrated South African works to international productions. Every year more than 350,000 people watch more than 1000 performances at this popular theatre. Two Oceans Aquarium
What makes the Two Oceans Aquarium so diverse is the location. It is here that the cold water of the Atlantic meets the warmer Indian Ocean. Few places in the world are in a more favourable position to feature the flora and fauna of oceans so different in temperature and the life they support. The construction and outstanding success of the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront was the catalyst in reawakening this dream of an Aquarium. Victoria & Alfred Waterfront
The Waterfront Company was formed in 1988 with a mandate to develop the historic harbour as a mixed use area, focusing on tourism and commerce with the continuing operation of the working harbour. Besides banks, shops, restaurants & cinemas the waterfront provides a variety of entertainment for the whole family. Visit the Two Oceans aquarium, Cyber world & the S.A. Maritime Museum, Scratch Patch & craft markets. If that is not enough you can stroll & enjoy the spectacle of buskers, street entertainers & musicians or enjoy the lively music & acts at the Amphitheatre. Helicopter trips, leisure boat trips as well as trips to Robben Island run from here. White Water Rafting
The Breede River (Western Cape) offers a weekend breakaway that is as good as a holiday. Surrounded by its tranquil beauty, this river is an exciting, yet safe rafting adventure. The trip requires no experience and the whole family is welcome to participate.
Zulu Battlefields
Relive the horror of some of the most bloody battles fought between the British and Zulu warriors. Isandlwana, where British troops were massacred by the Zulu army and Rorke’s Drift where a handful of British soldiers held a mighty Zulu regiment at bay. The battles are brought vividly to life by historians and expert guides. Close to the town of Dundee and about 175 miles from Durban. AND IN CLOSING…
Each province has its own attractions and varies from each other. From weather conditions, to its own individual beauty and scenery. Gauteng area and regions offer most of the luxury game reserves and an abundance of world-class casinos, including Montecasino, Gold Reef City, Emperors Palace, Carnival City and the Lost City at Sun City. Kwazulu Natal offers incredible history on the Zulu wars, enjoy a journey through the battlefields and Oceanside golf courses. All our provinces have world class golf courses, some designed by world famous golf pro’s. Beauty, health and wellness spa’s are found in all our provinces. South Africa is acknowledged as an international conference destination. We offer a variety of types of accommodation from the back packers lodges to the 5* hotels. Our infrastructure and technology makes it possible for any businessman or leisure traveler to have all the amenities on hand for an unforgettable holiday or business trip. Come and enjoy our country with us!
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Madagascar
History
Main article: History of Madagascar
As part of East Gondwana, the territory of Madagascar split from Africa approximately 160 million years ago; the island of Madagascar was created when it separated from the Indian subcontinent 80 to 100 million years ago. Most archaeologists estimate that the human settlement of Madagascar happened between 200 and 500 A.D., when seafarers from southeast Asia (probably from Borneo or the southern Celebes) arrived in outrigger sailing canoes. Bantu settlers probably crossed the Mozambique Channel to Madagascar at about the same time or shortly afterwards. However, Malagasy tradition and ethnographic evidence suggests that they may have been preceded by the Mikea hunter gatherers. The Anteimoro who established a kingdom in Southern Madagascar in the Middle Ages trace their origin to migrants from Somalia.
The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century, when Muslims established trading posts along the northwest coast. During the Middle Ages, the island’s kings began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably Arab, Persian and Somali traders who connected Madagascar with East Africa, the Middle East and India.
Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what is now the town of Morondava, and of Boina, centred in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the east African coast that gave Africa a trade route to the Silk Road, and served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships.
The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs adopted the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and expanded their kingdoms. They took on divine status, and new nobility and artisan classes were created. Madagascar functioned in the East African Middle Ages as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such as Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar.
European contact began in the year 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India. The Portuguese continued trading with the islanders and named the island So Loureno (St. Lawrence). In 1666, Franois Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Ile-de-France (today’s Runion and Mauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast.
The most famous pirate utopia is that of Captain Misson and his pirate crew, who allegedly founded the free colony of Libertatia in northern Madagascar in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favourite haunt for pirates, including Americans, one of whom brought Malagasy rice to South Carolina. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. Sailors sometimes called Madagascar “Island of the Moon”.
Andrianampoinimerina
(1795-1819)
Radama I
(1810-1828)
Ranavalona I
(1828-1861)
Radama II
(1861-1863)
Rasoherina
(1863-1868)
Ranavalona II
(1868-1883)
Ranavalona III
(1883-1897)
Beginning in the 1790s, Merina rulers succeeded in establishing hegemony over most of the island, including the coast. In 1817, the Merina ruler and the British governor of Mauritius concluded a treaty abolishing the slave trade, which had been important in Madagascar’s economy. In return, the island received British military and financial assistance. British influence remained strong for several decades, during which the Merina court was converted to Presbyterianism, Congregationalism and Anglicanism.
With the domination of the Indian Ocean by the Royal Navy and the end of the Arab slave trade, the western Sakalava lost their power to the emerging Merina state. The Betsimisaraka of the east coast also unified, but this union soon faltered.
Queen Ranavalona I “the Cruel” (r. 1828-61) issued a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar. By some estimates, 150,000 Christians died during the reign of Ranavalona. The island grew more isolated, and commerce with other nations came to a standstill.
France invaded Madagascar in 1883, in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War seeking to restore property that had been confiscated from French citizens. (Hova is one of three Merina classes: andriana aristocracy, hova common people, andevo slaves. The term hova was wrongly used by the French to mean Merina.) At the war’s end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 francs to the heirs of Joseph-Franois Lambert. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate.
In 1895, a French flying column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched to the capital, Antananarivo, where the city’s defenders quickly surrendered. Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended.
After the conclusion of hostilities, in 1896 France annexed Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family being sent into exile in Algeria.
During World War II, Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria. Some leaders in Nazi Germany proposed deporting all of Europe’s Jews to Madagascar (the Madagascar Plan), but nothing came of this. After France fell to Germany, the Vichy government administered Madagascar. During the Battle of Madagascar, British troops occupied the island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese, after which the Free French took over.
In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, the Malagasy Uprising broke out. It was suppressed after over a year of bitter fighting, with 8,000 to 90,000 people killed. The French later established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960. In 2006 the country experienced an attempted coup.
Politics
Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Politics of Madagascar
Although the present head of State has self-proclaimed himself, Madagascar is usually a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Madagascar is head of government, and of a pluriform[disambiguation needed] multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Senate and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The political situation in Madagascar has been marked by struggle for control. After Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, assassinations, military coups and disputed elections featured prominently.
Didier Ratsiraka took power in a military coup in 1975 and ruled until 2001, with a short break when he was ousted in the early 1990s. When Marc Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka both claimed victory after presidential elections in December 2001, Ratsiraka’s supporters tried to blockade the capital, Antananarivo, which was pro-Ravalomanana. After eight months of sporadic violence with considerable economic disruption, a recount in April 2002 led the High Constitutional Court to pronounce Ravalomanana president, but it was not until July that Ratsiraka fled to France and Ravalomanana gained control of the country.
Internal conflict in Madagascar had been minimal in the years that followed and since 2002, Ravalomanana and his party, Tiako-I-Madagasikara (TIM), have dominated political life. In an attempt to restrict the power and influence of the president, the prime minister and the 150-seat parliament have been given greater power in recent years.
Tension since was generally associated with elections. A presidential election took place in December 2006 with some protests over worsening standards of living, despite a government drive to eradicate poverty. Calls by a retired army general in November 2006 for Ravalomanana to step down were said to have been ‘misinterpreted’ as a coup attempt.
2009 Malagasy protests
Main article: 2009 Malagasy protests
The latest, and ongoing, spate of violence pitted then-President Marc Ravalomanana against Andry Rajoelina, former mayor of the capital, Antananarivo. Since the power tussle started on 26 January, more than 170 people were killed. Rajoelina mobilized his supporters to take to the streets of Antananarivo to demand Ravalomanana’s ousting on the grounds of his alleged “autocratic” style of government.
Ravalomanana’s resignation
After losing support of the military and under intense pressure from Rajoelina, President Ravalomanana resigned on 17 March 2009. Ravalomanana assigned his powers to a military council loyal to himself headed by Vice-Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson. The military called the move by Ravalomanana a “ploy” and said that it would support Rajoelina as leader. Rajoelina had already declared himself the new leader a month earlier and has since assumed the role of acting President. He has appointed Monja Roindefo as Prime Minister. Rajoelina announced that elections would be held in two years and that the constitution would be amended.
The European Union, amongst other international entities, has refused to recognize the new government, due to it being installed by force. The African Union, which proceeded to suspend Madagascar’s membership on 20 March and the Southern Africa Development Community both criticized the forced resignation of Ravalomanana. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon’s spokesperson said he is “gravely concerned about the evolving developments in Madagascar”.
Provinces and regions
Main articles: Provinces of Madagascar and Regions of Madagascar
Madagascar is currently divided into six autonomous provinces (faritany mizakatena), and subdivided into 22 regions (faritra), the latter created in 2004. The regions will be the highest subdivision level when the provinces are dissolved in accordance with the results of the 4 April 2007 referendum, which means by 4 October 2009.
Antananarivo (1)
Analamanga
Bongolava
Itasy
Vakinankaratra
Antsiranana (2)
Diana
Sava
Fianarantsoa (3)
Amoron’i Mania
Atsimo-Atsinanana
Haute-Matsiatra
Ihorombe
Vatovavy-Fitovinany
Mahajanga (4)
Betsiboka
Boeny
Melaky
Sofia
Toamasina (5)
Alaotra Mangoro
Analanjirofo
Atsinanana
Toliara (6)
Androy
Anosy
Atsimo-Andrefana
Menabe
The regions are further subdivided into 116 districts, 1,548 communes, and 16,969 fokontany. The major cities have a special status as “commune urbaine”, at the same level as the districts.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Madagascar
Isalo National Park
At 587,000 square kilometres (227,000 sq mi), Madagascar is the world’s 46th-largest country and the fourth largest island. It is slightly bigger than France, and is one of 11 distinct physiographic provinces of the South African Platform physiographic division.
Towards the east, a steep escarpment leads from the central highlands down into a ribbon of rain forest with a narrow coastal further east. The Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of natural and man-made lakes connected by canals that runs parallel to the east coast for some 460 km (286 mi) (about two-thirds of the island). The descent from the central highlands toward the west is more gradual, with remnants of deciduous forest and savanna-like plains (which in the south and southwest, are quite dry and host spiny desert and baobabs). On the west coast are many protected harbours, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion inland.
Along the crest of this ridge lie the central highlands, a plateau region ranging in altitude from 2,450 to 4,400 ft (747 to 1,341 m) above sea level. The central highlands are characterised by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between barren hills. Here, the red laterite soil that covers much of the island has been exposed by erosion, showing clearly why the country is often referred to as the “Red Island”.
The island’s highest peak, Maromokotro, at 2,876 metres (9,440 ft), is found in the Tsaratanana Massif, located in the far north of the country. The Ankaratra Massif is in the central area south of the capital Antananarivo and hosts the third highest mountain on the island, Tsiafajavona, with an altitude of 2,642 metres (8,670 ft). Further south is the Andringitra massif which has several peaks over 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) including the second and fourth highest peaks, Pic Imarivolanitra, more widely known as Pic Boby (2,658 metres/8,720 feet), and Pic Bory (2,630 metres/8,600 feet). Other peaks in the massif include Pic Soaindra (2,620 metres/8,600 feet) and Pic Ivangomena (2,556 metres/8,390 feet). This massif also contains the Andringitra Reserve. On very rare occasions, this region experiences snow in winter due to its high altitude.
There are two seasons: a hot, rainy season from November to April, and a cooler, dry season from May to October. South-eastern trade winds predominate, and the island occasionally experiences cyclones.
Ecology
Main articles: Fauna of Madagascar, Ecoregions of Madagascar, and Agroecology in Madagascar
Tsingy in Madagascar
Madagascar’s long isolation from the neighboring continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and animals, many found nowhere else in the world; some ecologists refer to Madagascar as the “eighth continent”. Of the 10,000 plants native to Madagascar, 90% are found nowhere else in the world. Madagascar’s varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity, as a third of its native vegetation has disappeared since the 1970s, and only 18% remains intact. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. The elephant birds, which were giant ratites native to Madagascar, have been extinct since at least the 17th century. Aepyornis was the world’s largest bird, believed to have been over 3 metres (10 ft) tall.
Most lemurs are listed as endangered or threatened species. Many species have gone extinct in the last centuries, mainly due to habitat destruction and hunting.
The eastern, or windward side of the island is home to tropical rainforests, while the western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Madagascar’s dry deciduous rain forest has been preserved generally better than the eastern rainforests or the high central plateau, presumably due to historically low population densities. Madagascar has several national parks.
The Indri is 1 of 99 recognized species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.
Extensive deforestation has taken place in parts of the country, some due to mining operations. Slash-and-burn activity, locally called tavy, has occurred in the eastern and western dry forests as well as on the central high plateau, reducing certain forest habitat and applying pressure to some endangered species. Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by shifting cultivators to create short-term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly without intervening fallow periods, the nutrient-poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. The resulting increased surface runoff from burned lands has caused significant erosion and resulting high sedimentation to western rivers.
As a part of conservation efforts, the Wildlife Conservation Society has recently opened a Madagascar! exhibit at the Bronx Zoo. The New York Academy of Sciences recently published a Podcast about the Madagascar! exhibit, which details the fauna and flora of Madagascar and what types of projects the WCS is involved with in the country. The Podcast can be listened to here
Madagascar is represented in the FIPS 10-4 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Madagascar
Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar
Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay of the economy. Major exports are coffee, vanilla (Madagascar is the world’s largest producer and exporter of vanilla), sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts and livestock products. Vanilla has historically been of particular importance, and when in 1985 Coca-cola switched to New Coke which involved less vanilla, Madagascar’s economy took a marked downturn, but returned to previous levels after the return of Coke Classic.
Structural reforms began in the late 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions, notably the World Bank. An initial privatization program (19881993) and the development of an export processing zone (EPZ) regime in the early 1990s were key milestones in this effort. A period of significant stagnation from 1991 to 1996 was followed by five years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment, driven by a second wave of privatizations[citation needed] and EPZ development. Although structural reforms advanced, governance remained weak and perceived corruption in Madagascar was extremely high. During the period of solid growth from 1997 to 2001, poverty levels remained stubbornly high, especially in rural areas. A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002. Real GDP dropped 12.7% for the year 2002, inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar’s budding reputation as an AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. After the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003. Currency depreciation and rising inflation in 2004 have hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3%, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy of raising the Taux Directeur (central bank rate) to 16% and tightening reserve requirements for banks. Thus growth was expected to reach around 6.5% in 2005.
Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with international financial institutions and donors. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a “Friends of Madagascar” conference organized by the World Bank in Paris in July 2002. Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging $1 billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee.
Rice paddies in Madagascar
In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and World Bank agreed in December 2000 that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative and defined a set of conditions for Madagascar to reach the completion point. In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative.
The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed as a collaboration between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Malagasian artisan producers in Madagascar in 2002. The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organisations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups.
The government of President Ravalomanana is aggressively seeking foreign investment and is tackling many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods TIKO company, and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. Some recent concerns have arisen about the conflict of interest between his policies and the activities of his firms. Most notable among them the preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 when responding to a production shortfall in the country.
Madagascar’s sources of growth are tourism; textile and light manufacturing exports (notably through the EPZs); agricultural products; and mining. Madagascar is the world’s leading producer of vanilla and accounts for about half the world’s export market. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar’s unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. Exports from the EPZs, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, comprise the majority of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under AGOA and the European markets under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Agricultural exports consist of low-volume high-value products like vanilla, litchies and essential oils. A small but growing part of the economy is based on mining of ilmenite, with investments emerging in recent years, particularly near Tulear and Fort Dauphin. Mining corporation Rio Tinto Group expects to begin operations near Fort Dauphin in 2008, following several years of infrastructure preparation. The mining project is highly controversial, with Friends of the Earth and other environmental organizations filing reports to detail their concerns about effects on the local environment and communities.
Autoclave enters Madagascar, 2008, as part of new mining operation
Several major projects are underway in the mining and oil and gas sectors that, if successful, will give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy.
In the mining sector, these include the development of coal at Sakoa and nickel near Tamatave. In oil, Madagascar Oil is developing the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga.
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Madagascar
Madagascar was historically perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), which was founded in 1963. President Albert Zafy, taking office in 1993, expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries. Early in his tenure, he established formal ties with South Korea and sent emissaries to Morocco.
Starting in 1997, globalisation encouraged the government and President Ratsiraka to adhere to market-oriented policies and to engage world markets. External relations reflect this trend, although Madagascar’s physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its East African neighbours. It enjoys closer and generally good relations with its Indian Ocean neighbours Mauritius, Runion and Comoros. Active relationships with Europe, especially France, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as with Britain, Russia, Japan, India and China have been strong since independence. More recently, President Ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the United States, and Madagascar was the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). Madagascar is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).
The OAU dissolved in 2002 and was replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit due to the dispute over the results of the election in December 2001, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. However, Madagascar was suspended again by the African Union in March 2009 due to the ongoing political crisis.
During his presidency, Marc Ravalomanana traveled widely promoting Madagascar abroad and consciously sought to strengthen relations with Anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong French influence. He also cultivated strong ties with China during his tenure.
In November 2004, after an absence of almost 30 years, Madagascar re-opened its embassy in London. On 15 December 2004 the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, announced the closure of the British embassy in Antananarivo to save 250,000 a year. He also announced an end to the government’s aid to Madagascar, the DFID-funded Small Grants Scheme. The embassy closed in August 2005 despite petitions and protests from African heads of state, a European commissioner, the Malagasy Senate, many British companies, 30 or so NGOs operating in Madagascar, and members of the public.[citation needed]
The British Embassy was previously closed (also for financial reasons) from 1975 to 1980. The Anglo-Malagasy Society are campaigning to have it re-opened.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Madagascar
Antananarivo, Madagascar
Madagascar’s population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian (i.e.South-East Asian/Pacific Islander) and African origin. Those who are visibly Austronesian in appearance and culture are the minority, found mostly in the highland regions. Recent research suggests that the island was uninhabited until Austronesian seafarers arrived about 1,500 to 2,000 years ago. Recent DNA research shows that the Malagasy people are approximately of half Austronesian and half East African descent, although some Arab, Indian and European influence is present along the coast. Malagasy language shares some 90% of its basic vocabulary with the Ma’anyan language from the region of the Barito River in southern Borneo.
Subsequent migrations from the East Indies and Africa consolidated this original mixture, and 36 separate tribal groups emerged. Austronesian features are most predominant in the Merina (3 million) ; the coastal people (called ctiers) are of more clearly African origin. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). The Vezo live in the southwest. Two of the southern tribes are the Antandroy and the Antanosy. Other tribes include Tankarana (northern tip), Sihanaka and Bezanozano (east), Tanala (south-east), An-Taimoro, Tambahoaka, Zafisoro, An-Taisaka and Timanambondro (south-east coast), and Mahafaly and Bara (south-west). Chinese and Indian minorities also exist, as well as Europeans, mostly French. The number of Comorans residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comoran rioting in Mahajanga in 1976.
During the French colonial administration (18951960) and some time after independence, people were officially classified in ethnic groups. This practice was abandoned in the first census (1975) after independence, so any recent classification and figures for ethnic groups is an unofficial estimate. There is for instance no mention of ethnicity or religion in the national identity cards. Also, territorial divisions (provinces, regions) do not follow any ethnic division lines, despite an attempt by the colonial administration in the early 20th century. Ethnic divisions continue, and may cause violence, but their role is limited in today’s society. Ethnic tensions in Madagascar often produce violent conflict between the Merina highlanders and coastal peoples. Regional political parties are also rare, although some parties receive most of their support in certain areas.
Only two general censuses, 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence.
In 1993 (last census) there were 18,497 foreign residents on Madagascar, or 0.15% of the population.
Health
The fertility rate is at about 5 children per woman. There are about 29 physicians per 100,000 persons. Infant mortality was at 74 per 1,000 live births in 2005. Life expectancy at birth was at 58.4 in the early 21st century. Expenditure on health was 29 US$ (PPP) in 2004.
Language
Main article: Languages of Madagascar
The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is spoken among the educated population of this former French colony. English, although still rare, is becoming more widely spoken, and in 2003, the government began a pilot project of introducing the teaching of English into the primary grades of 44 schools, with hopes of taking the project nationwide. Many Peace Corps volunteers are serving to further this effort and train teachers.
In the first Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic.
No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992. Instead, Malagasy was named the national language; however, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, as they were de facto. In April 2000, a citizen brought a legal case on the grounds that the publication of official documents in the french language only was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.
In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remains the national language while official languages are reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English. The motivation for the inclusion of English is partly to improve relations with the neighbouring countries where English is used and to encourage foreign direct investment.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Madagascar
Malagasy culture reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Arab, African and European influences. Houses in Madagascar are typically four-sided with a peaked roof, in a style commonly seen in Southeast Asia, rather than the circular style of hut construction more commonly found in Eastern Africa. Rice forms the basis of every meal in most parts of the country as in Asia. The dishes prepared to accompany the rice vary depending on local availability of food products and are known as laoka.
Arab influence
Arab immigrants were few in number compared to the Indonesians and Bantus, but they left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins are Arabic in origin, as is the practice of circumcision, the communal grain pool, and different forms of salutation. The Arab magicians, known as the ombiasy, established themselves in the courts of many Malagasy tribal kingdoms. Arab immigrants imposed the patriarchal system of family and clan rule on Madagascar. Previous to the Arabs, the Malagasies practiced the Polynesian matriarchal system whereby rights of privilege and property are conferred equally on men and women.
Education
A significant proportion of the adult population are illiterate. The female youth literacy rate is below the male youth literacy rate. Public expenditure on education was at 16.4 % of total government expenditure in the 2000-2007 period. Public current expenditure on primary education per pupil is at about US$ 57 (PPP). Madagascar has several universities.
Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Madagascar
Music
Main article: Music of Madagascar
Madagascar has a distinctive and rich musical heritage. The early Austronesian settlers brought with them the predecessor to the bamboo tube zither known as the valiha as well as other instruments that would form the basis for traditional Malagasy music. The influence of Africans is evident in certain drumming and polyharmonic singing styles, while the tendency toward minor chords along the coasts reflects an Arab musical influence. European pirates likewise contributed to Malagasy musical traditions, importing the guitar, accordion, piano and the instruments used in hiragasy performance including the violin, trumpet and clarinet.
Mythology
Main article: Malagasy mythology
The country has a rich oratory tradition in the form of hainteny, kabary and ohabolana. An epic poem, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island and showcases the lively and highly developed oral traditions of Madagascar.
Hainteny
Main article: hainteny
The zebu, or humped cattle, occupies an important place in traditional Malagasy culture. The animal can take on sacred importance and constitutes the wealth of the owner, a tradition originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the Southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers. Where African influences are strongest, as in the Southern region around Tulear, wealth and social status are measured in cattle, and the zebu can outnumber the inhabitants by two or three to one. Zebu are a popular motif on aloalo, the carved wooden poles that decorate tombs among some tribes in the southwestern part of the country.
Andrianampoinimerina (circa 17451810) united the Merina kingdom, moving his capital from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo and building his royal palace, or rova, on a strategic location on the highest hilltop overlooking the city. A number of cultural traditions, including the kabary and the hiragasy, were popularized during the period of his administration.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Madagascar
Traditional religion
Main article: Malagasy mythology
Approximately 50% of the country’s population practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the dead. The Merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. The Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana, or “turning over the dead”, celebrates this spiritual communion. In this ritual, relatives’ remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to the tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor where sometimes the bodies are lifted and carried high above the celebrants heads with singing and dancing before returning them to the tomb.
Traditionally, the Malagasy hold their ancestors in high esteem and many believe they continue to intervene in events on Earth after their death. A powerful individual may establish a fady (taboo) in his or her lifetime that all their descendents or those of community members will be required to respect well after their death, meaning that when traveling in Madagascar it is advisable to seek out village elders or authorities and inquire into local fady in order not to inadvertently transgress and offend the local population. This veneration of ancestors has also lead to the tradition of tomb building and the famadihana, a practice whereby a deceased family member’s remains may be taken from the tomb to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The event is an occasion to celebrate the loved one’s memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are often served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is typically present.
Christianity
Main article: Roman Catholicism in Madagascar
See also: Ranavalona I#Christian persecution
Roman Catholic cathedral in Antsirabe.
Today about 45% of the Malagasy are Christian, divided almost evenly between Catholics and Protestants. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their other religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a Christian minister to attend a famadihana. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches (FFKM) comprising the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations(Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican). In the 19th century under Queen Ranavalona I, there was infamous persecution and mass extermination of Christians.
Islam
Main article: Islam in Madagascar
Islam in Madagascar constitutes about 7% of the population. The Arab and Somali Muslim traders who first brought Islam in the Middle Ages had a deep influence on the west coast. For example, many Malagasy converted to Islam and the Malagasy language was, for the first time, transcribed into an alphabet, based on the Arabic alphabet, called Sorabe. Muslims are concentrated in the provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana (Diego Suarez). Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorians.
Hinduism
Main article: Hinduism in Madagascar
Hinduism in Madagascar began with Gujarati from the Saurashtra region of India as far back as 1900, when Madagascar was a French colony. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi.
International rankings
Organization
Survey
Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace
Global Peace Index
72 out of 144
United Nations Development Programme
Human Development Index
145 out of 182
Transparency International
Corruption Perceptions Index
99 out of 180
World Economic Forum
Global Competitiveness Report
121 out of 133
See also
Main articles: Outline of Madagascar and Index of Madagascar-related articles
Military of Madagascar
Transport in Madagascar
Communications in Madagascar
Malagasy diplomatic missions
Firaisan’ny Skotisma eto Madagasikara
References
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^ Madagascar: An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and Its Former Dependencies by Samuel Pasfield Oliver., p. 6. (excerpted in Google Book Search)
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^ (French) 1947 L’insurrection Madagascar – Jean Fremigacci – Marianne[dead link]
^ a b IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: ‘Violence could escalate’ | Governance Conflict | News Item
^ IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Former president sentenced to five years in prison | Governance | News Item
^ IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Hoping for fair, transparent, uncontroversial elections | Economy Governance Other | Feature
^ IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Appeal launched despite political uncertainty | Children Economy Food Security Governance Health & Nutrition Conflict …
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^ African Union suspends Madagascar over ‘coup’ – Africa, World – The Independent
^ (UPDATE) Army puts Madagascar opposition leader in charge | Home >> Other Sections >> Breaking News
^ The Eighth Continent: Life, Death, and Discovery in the Lost World of Madagascar
^ a b “Science News: New Genus of Self-destructive Palm found in Madagascar”. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.kew.org/scihort/news/new_palm_genus.html. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
^ Terrestrial Ecoregions — Madagascar subhumid forests (AT0118), National Geographic.
^ Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)
^ Lemurs Hunted, Eaten Amid Civil Unrest, Group Says. National Geographic News. August 21, 2009.
^ Science & the City | Public Gateway to the New York Academy of Sciences
^ “Independent States in the World”. United States Department of State. 2008-03-20. http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/4250.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
^ Madagascar – Country Facts- Goway Travel Experiences
^ “Made in Madagascar: Exporting Handicrafts to the U.S. Market: a Project with the UN Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development; Final Report”, A Project with the UN Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development.
^ Madagascar – Mining: Heavy Minerals Mining
^ Rio Tinto’s Madagascar mining project
^ “Africa rejects Madagascar ‘coup’” bbc.co.uk 20 March 2009 Link accessed 20 March 2009
^ U.S. Library of Congress,”Madagascar – Minorities”
^ L’ethnicisation des rapports sociaux Madagascar
^ “Ethnic strife rocks Madagascar”. BBC News. May 14, 2002.
^ a b c d e f g http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_MDG.html
^ “Le malgache et le franais sont les langues officielles de la Rpublique Malgache.” Constitution, Titre I, Art. 2; Constitutional Law 14 October 1958.
^ Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Dcision n03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000
^ Madagascar adopts English as official language, ClickAfrique.com, 10 April 2007.
^ a b http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/madagascar_statistics.html
^ Madagascar and Africa III. The Anteimoro: A Theocracy in Southeastern Madagascar, by R. K. Kent The Journal of African History 1969 pg 62
^ “Vision of Humanity”. Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 2010-02-04.
External links
Find more about Madagascar on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Government
The Madagascar Government
National Assembly of Madagascar
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Madagascar
Embassies and Consulates
Canada Hungary Washington DC
Chief of State and Cabinet Members, from CIA
General information
Country Profile from BBC News
Madagascar entry at The World Factbook
Madagascar from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Madagascar at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar
Madagascar travel guide from Wikitravel
News media
Madagascar Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN United Nations
Madagascar news headline links from allAfrica.com
Ecology
Madagascar’s National Parks and Reserves official park website
Conservation International Madagascar overview pages
Madagascar Wildlife Conservation MWC is a Malagasy non-profit association, which organises and pursues community-based conservations projects
New York Academy of Sciences Conserving Madagascar Podcast by Helen Crowley
Madagascar conservation story
Journal Madagascar Conservation & Development
Miscellaneous
The Madagascar Project, Project set up to help Malagasy communities tackle the causes and effects of poverty
Old maps of Madagascar by CEGET library (CNRS, France)
Azafady UK charity and Malagasy NGO working in southeast Madagascar to alleviate poverty, improve well-being and protect beautiful unique environments with the help of its award winning volunteering programmes.
Shama Foundation of Madagascar charitable organization providing scholarships for underprivileged students in Madagascar
Opinions of La Haute Cour Constitutionelle du Madagascar
Blue Ventures award winning not-for-profit organisation dedicated to facilitating projects and expeditions that enhance global marine conservation and research. Based in Andavadoaka, South West coast of Madagascar.
Foko-madagascar not-for-profit organization and Rising Voices grantee project dedicated to the use of ICT as a tool to promote sustainable development, especially combining human development and the protection of the environment.
WildMadagascar.org Overview, news, photos, cultural history. English and French
Madagascar Photos Madagascar
The Palmarium reserve, is situated on the East coast of Madagascar.
Keelonga, keelonga is an organisation dedicated to assisting rural primary schools with infrastructures and teachers
Articles Related to Madagascar
Geographic locale
Lat. and Long. 1855 4731 / 18.917S 47.517E / -18.917; 47.517 (Antananarivo)
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Countries and territories of Africa
West Africa
Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Cte d’Ivoire The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo
North Africa
Algeria Egypt Libya Mauritania Morocco Sudan Tunisia
Central Africa
Angola Burundi Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Equatorial Guinea Gabon Rwanda So Tom and Prncipe
East Africa
Burundi Comoros Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Seychelles Somalia Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe
Southern Africa
Botswana Lesotho Namibia South Africa Swaziland
States with
limited recognition
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland
Partially in Africa
France (Runion) Italy (Pantelleria) Portugal (Madeira) Spain (Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla / Plazas de soberana) Yemen (Socotra)
Dependencies
Iles Eparses (France) Mayotte (France) Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)
Disputed areas
Western Sahara
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Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean
Africa
Comoros Djibouti Egypt Eritrea Kenya Madagascar Mauritius Mayotte Mozambique Runion Seychelles Somalia South Africa Sudan Tanzania
Asia
Bahrain Bangladesh Burma Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Malaysia Maldives Oman Pakistan Qatar Saudi Arabia Sri Lanka Thailand United Arab Emirates Yemen
Oceania
Australia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Islands
Bahrain British Indian Ocean Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Comoros Madagascar Maldives Mauritius Mayotte Runion Seychelles Sri Lanka
International membership
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Southern African Development Community (SADC)
Member states
Angola Botswana Democratic Republic of the Congo Lesotho Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Namibia South Africa Swaziland Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe
Leaders
Chairpersons: Levy Mwanawasa Kgalema Motlanthe
Secretaries-General: Kaire Mbuende Prega Ramsamy Tomaz Salomo
See also
Southern African Development Coordination Conference Southern African Customs Union Common Monetary Area Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
v d e
African Union (AU)
Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Cte d’Ivoire Djibouti Egypt Eritrea Ethiopia Equatorial Guinea Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic So Tom and Prncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe
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Portuguese Empire
North Africa
15th century
14151640 Ceuta
14581550 Alccer Ceguer (El Qsar es Seghir)
14711550 Arzila (Asilah)
14711662 Tangier
14851550 Mazagan (El Jadida)
1487 middle 16th century Ouadane
14881541 Safim (Safi)
16th century
15051769 Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gu (Agadir)
15061525 Mogador (Essaouira)
15061525 Aguz (Souira Guedima)
15061769 Mazagan (El Jadida)
15131541 Azamor (Azemmour)
15771589 Arzila (Asilah)
Sub-Saharan Africa
15th century
14551633 Arguin
14701975 So Tom1
14741778 Annobn
14781778 Fernando Poo (Bioko)
14821637 Elmina (So Jorge da Mina)
14821642 Portuguese Gold Coast
14961550 Madagascar (part)
14981540 Mascarene Islands
16th century
15001630 Malindi
15001975 Prncipe1
15011975 Portuguese E. Africa (Mozambique)
15021659 St. Helena
15031698 Zanzibar
15051512 Quloa (Kilwa)
15061511 Socotra
15571578 Accra
15751975 Portuguese W. Africa (Angola)
15881974 Cacheu2
15931698 Mombassa (Mombasa)
17th century
16421975 Cape Verde
16451888 Ziguinchor
16801961 So Joo Baptista de Ajud
16871974 Bissau2
18th century
17281729 Mombassa (Mombasa)
17531975 So Tom and Prncipe
19th century
18791974 Portuguese Guinea
18851975 Portuguese Congo (Cabinda)
1 Part of So Tom and Prncipe from 1753. 2 Part of Portuguese Guinea from 1879.
Southwest Asia
16th century
15061615 Gamru (Bandar-Abbas)
15071643 Sohar
15151622 Hormuz (Ormus)
15151648 Quriyat
1515? Qalhat
15151650 Muscat
1515?? Barka
15151633? Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah)
15211602 Bahrain (Muharraq and Manama)
15211529? Qatif
1521?1551? Tarut Island
15501551 Qatif
15881648 Matrah
17th century
1620? Khor Fakkan
1621?? As Sib
16211622 Qeshm
1623? Khasab
1623? Libedia
1624? Kalba
1624? Madha
16241648 Dibba Al-Hisn
1624?? Bandar-e Kong
Indian subcontinent
15th century
14981545 Laccadive Islands (Lakshadweep)
16th century
Portuguese India
15001663 Cochim (Kochi)
15021661 Quilon (Coulo/Kollam)
15021663 Cannanore (Kannur)
15071657 Negapatam (Nagapatnam)
15101962 Goa
15121525 Calicut (Kozhikode)
15181619 Paliacate (Pulicat)
15211740 Chaul
15231662 Mylapore
15281666 Chittagong
15341601 Salsette Island
15341661 Bombay (Mumbai)
15351739 Baam (Vasai-Virar)
15361662 Cranganore (Kodungallur)
15401612 Surat
15481658 Tuticorin (Thoothukudi)
15591962 Daman and Diu
15681659 Mangalore
15791632 Hugli
15981610 Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)
15181521 Maldives
15181658 Portuguese Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
15581573 Maldives
17th century
Portuguese India
16871749 Mylapore
18th century
Portuguese India
17791954 Dadra and Nagar Haveli
East Asia and Oceania
16th century
15111641 Portuguese Malacca
15121621 Banda Islands
15121621 Moluccas (Maluku Islands)
15221575 Ternate
15761605 Ambon
15781650 Tidore
15121665 Makassar
15531999 Macau
15331545 Ningbo
15711639 Decima (Dejima, Nagasaki)
17th century
16421975 Portuguese Timor (East Timor)1
19th century
Macau
18641999 Coloane
18491999 Portas do Cerco
18511999 Taipa
18901999 Ilha Verde
20th century
Macau
19381941 Lapa and Montanha (Hengqin)
1 1975 is the date of East Timor’s Declaration of Independence and subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, the independence of East Timor was recognized by Portugal and the rest of the world.
North America and the North Atlantic Ocean
15th century
1420 Madeira
1432 Azores
16th century
15001579? Terra Nova (Newfoundland)
15001579? Labrador
15161579? Nova Scotia
Central and South America
16th century
15001822 Brazil
15361620 Barbados
17th century
16801777 Nova Colnia do Sacramento
19th century
18081822 Cisplatina (Uruguay)
Portuguese colonization of the Americas
Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia
Languages
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Member states and observers of the Francophonie
Members
Albania Andorra Armenia Belgium (French Community) Benin Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada (New Brunswick Quebec) Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Cyprus1 Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Cte d’Ivoire Djibouti Dominica Egypt Equatorial Guinea France (French Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique St. Pierre and Miquelon) Gabon Ghana1 Greece Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Laos Luxembourg Lebanon Macedonia2 Madagascar Mali Mauritania Mauritius Moldova Monaco Morocco Niger Romania Rwanda St. Lucia So Tom and Prncipe Senegal Seychelles Switzerland Togo Tunisia Vanuatu Vietnam
Observers
Austria Croatia Czech Republic Georgia Hungary Latvia Lithuania Mozambique Poland Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Thailand Ukraine
1 Associate member. 2 Provisionally referred to by the Francophonie as the “former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia”; see Macedonia naming dispute.
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Austronesian-speaking countries and territories
Formosan
Taiwan
Malayo-Polynesian
American Samoa Brunei Burma (Myanmar) Cambodia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cook Islands Easter Island East Timor Fiji French Polynesia Guam Hainan Indonesia Kiribati Madagascar Malaysia Marshall Islands FS Micronesia Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Orchid Island Palau Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands Sri Lanka Suriname Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu United States (Hawaii) Vanuatu Vietnam Wallis and Futuna
v d e
English-speaking world
Anglosphere
Dark blue: Countries and territories where English is spoken natively by a significant population.
Light blue: Countries where English is an official language but not widely spoken.
Click on the coloured regions to view the related article.
Regions where English is an official language and spoken by a significant population:
Africa
Nigeria Mauritius Saint Helena South Africa
Americas
Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda The Bahamas Barbados Belize Bermuda British Virgin Islands Canada Cayman Islands Dominica Falkland Islands Grenada Guyana Jamaica Montserrat Netherlands Antilles (Saba, Saint Eustatius, Saint Maarten) Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands United States United States Virgin Islands
Asia
Hong Kong Philippines Singapore
Europe
Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Malta Republic of Ireland United Kingdom
Oceania
Australia Marshall Islands Federated States of Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Palau
Regions where English is an official language but not widely spoken:
Africa
Botswana Cameroon Ghana Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Namibia Rwanda Sierra Leone Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe
Americas
Puerto Rico
Asia
India Malaysia Pakistan
Oceania
Fiji Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands
English Wiktionary
Categories: Madagascar | African countries | African Union member states | Countries of the Indian Ocean | East Africa | French-speaking countries | Island countries | Islands of Africa | Islands of Madagascar | Least Developed Countries | Malay-speaking countries and territories | Member states of La Francophonie | Physiographic provinces | Southern Africa | States and territories established in 1960Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead external links from April 2009 | Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages | Articles containing French language text | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008 | Articles with links needing disambiguation | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2009
About the Author
I am an expert from China Crafts Suppliers, usually analyzes all kind of industries situation, such as long leg braces , orthopedic suppliers.
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Want to learn English and teach me French at the same time? Edmonton?
I am looking for someone in Edmont, Alberta, who would like o learn English conversation, etc, and teach e the same in French. I know it’s a long shot, but if you’re willing, please contact me by replying. I will then give you an email you can reach me at, and we can go from there. Adults only, of course. (I am and adult,too). Thanks–
Looking forward to it!
I think I will try to do the job 
I am 23 y o, French and speak english and want to improve all the time.
Interested ?