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Interactive English Courses Increase Interest

Regardless of the subject matter and the age group of the student, interactive teaching tends to work best. In today’s technology driven and information based world, most interactive learning is done via computers. This can take many formats, such as:

- PowerPoint presentations
- Video presentations
- Webinars and web conferencing
- Audio
- Games

What is Interactive Learning?

This is learning where the student is actively involved in the process. They do not just sit in a classroom or other similar setting and have someone feed them information. Instead, they are actively engaged in the process by hands on activities. When English is taught using multimedia resources to make the teaching and learning interactive, all the senses become engaged.

In short, interactive English courses stimulate interest by appealing to all the different learning styles of people. These learning styles that are involved with interactive learning are:

- Listening
- Seeing
- Touching and doing

Using these senses, learning takes place when the student is actively engaged by the teacher, the software or teaching material and the subject matter.

English as Second Language

English is a difficult subject for native English speakers, much less for persons who are learning it as a second language. Interactive English courses are especially useful at increasing interest when used to teach English to non-English speakers. Whether a child, teen or adult, learning by doing makes the whole process seem more real. This can improve retention as the student’s interest is kept throughout the learning session.

Some ways those students learn English interactively is by playing word games, puzzles and even with songs. In some cases, students are encouraged to watch movies in English and try to interpret what is being said. The movies can be viewed with captions or not depending on the level attained by the students. Many interactive English courses allow students to answer questions online.

Learning English Interactively for English-Speaking Children

Children too can benefit greatly if teachers introduce them to the basic concepts of the English language by using interactive teaching methods. Most children find it easier to learn by seeing and experiencing something, so interactive teaching methods definitely increase interest.

Interactive English courses do not only increase interest in learning the subject. They also encourage and ultimately improve student-teacher interaction in the teaching-learning process. Learning is always best achieved when students feel that their teachers show an interest and they can actually see that they are learning.

Anyone involved in education, regardless of the level, will admit that interactive learning enables teachers to hold the attention of students. The great thing about interactive teaching methods is that teachers and students can connect with each other even if they are not in the same location. There have been studies which indicate that interactive learning is also an important tool for successful online learning.

In years past, interactive courses were generally utilized in mathematics and the sciences. Now however, interactive English courses are commonplace in many school settings. This type of teaching and learning method helps make learning a new language fun for everyone involved.

About the Author

Learn to speak English
online with courses that will help you learn English at your own pace. Online English school offers
online English lessons
to help students learn English and achieve their goals.

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Learn How To Speak Spanish Online

Learning Spanish by the use of the internet can be an efficient way to learn the language. You do not need to attend school, travel going to one or lug your books around. You do not need to abide with usual classroom schedule because you will be able to study any time you want. It may either be night or day or even at your own pace. There are no boundaries to the things you can learn.

The tips below are some of the things you can take into account to be able to start in studying the Spanish language online.

Tools for Learning Spanish Online

Computer Headset. Make sure your computer has speakers and a microphone or a headset. This may look like an obvious thing but many people have a tendency to neglect this device. I couldn’t participate in the speaking and pronunciation exercises back when I was studying a few language courses and I think that I missed out on certain useful lessons because of this.

Software. To get yourself up and running in the Spanish language, you need to pick out a good Spanish learning software program. Sometimes interactive games, flash cards or immersion games are included in softwares.

Free courses. Registering for free online spanish courses like Mi Vida Loca for beginners or Livemocha’s beginning and intermediate Spanish courses may also help a lot.

Online dictionary. Having a few monolingual and bilingual online dictionaries may also be helpful. One option is the Real Academia Española’s online monolingual Spanish dictionary. (The official body that serves as the guardian and arbiter of the Spanish language is the Academia.) Wordreference.com is my preferred online Spanish-English and English-Spanish dictionary if your opting for bilingual dictionaries.

Phone with Internet capabilities. Today there is a technology that permits you to talk to people around the world for free. It is called VOIP-to-VOIP or Voice Over Internet Protocol calling. You can put into practice your Spanish diction free of charge by using this technology to call up and exchange conversation with a native Spanish speaker.

Media that uses the Spanish Language. To further boost your Spanish pronunciation, you may try reading online newspapers and listen to online radio stations once you have achieved basic proficiency in Spanish. You can look upEl País, El Mundo, and La Vanguardia from Spain; El Universal and Reforma from Mexico; and Clarín, Página12, and La Nación from Argentina for newspapers in Spanish with online translations or online Spanish radio stations on Radio Nacional de España’s network.

Guidelines for Learning Spanish Online

Self-discipline have to be imposed. Nobody will demand for a reason why you missed class again when you’re learning Spanish online. For you to accomplish your goal, and that’s to learn Spanish, you must discipline yourself to stay in your lesson schedule. You can’t depend on anyone but yourself on this.

You need to have goals. Setting weekly goals might be incredibly helpful in reaching your objective to learn Spanish. After you’ve decided on how many words you’re going to learn, how many lessons you’re going to include and how many conversations you are going to have, you may now begin studying.

Make the time. As much as possible, abide to the schedule you’ve made. An ongoing regular time for studying Spanish is essential if you like to learn the language. Even if this implies studying on your lunch hour or before going to bed at night, being consistent in abiding to the schedule is the solution.

Celebration is always a necessity. Even though you’ve just learned to speak a simple word in Spanish, or you’re already able to converse using the language, celebrating your victory should not be forgotten. Adults like us react to positive reinforcement too. It often increases motivation for learning any concept, and in our case, learning how to speak in Spanish.

To know more about studying spanish online, you can visit Easy Online Spanish Lessons

 

About the Author

Being knowledgeable in speaking spanish himself, Eric Moore is one of those people who were able to learn a different language by just studying it online. This is the reason why he put up a website that caters learning the spanish language online, to be able to help other people learn the language just like how he did.

The Mother-Tongue (L1) Usage In Teach?ng Engl?sh Perspect?ves Of Students And Teachers

Introduction

 

1. Recently, two  different opinions  have  been discussed about  L1  use in  EFL classes.On  the one  side,  it  is  believed  that L1 should  be  used in  EFL classrooms  with the  opinion of  that  L1 use          reduces anxiety which helpsstudents learn beter (Auerbach, 1993;Reis,1996;Cole,2001;Buckmaster,2000;Toyama,Viney,Helgesen,Bernard & Edge3,2000; and Need  help urgently,2001).On the other side, the benefits  of teaching  English through  English  are emphasized  and  L1  use  is  restricted  (Ellis,1984;Chaudron,1988;and Takahashi,1996).This  view emphaizes  that  the  more  students  are  exposed  to  the target  language,the beter their capabilities  in  the  target  language  will  be.

 

         Regarding  the  relation  betweenj  the  input  students  receive  in  the  target  language  and the  outcame,Chaudron(1988) states  that :

 

         ‘’……… in  the typical  foreign  language  classroom,the  common  belief  is  that  the  fullest  competence  in  the  TL (target  language) is  achieved  by  means  of  the  teacher  providing  a  rich TL environment, in  which  not  only  instruction  and  drills  are  executed  in  the  TL, but  also  disciplinary  and  management  operations.’’ )p.1)

 

1.          Exposure  to  L2 and  information  in the  L2  are  claimed to  be  more  important  in  EFL  settings  as  EFL learners  are  generally  not  exposed  to  English  outside  the  classroom  in  their  daily  lives  unless  they  try  to  find some changes  on  their own ( Ellis,1994  and Murhey  & Sasaki, 1998).On the  other  hand  Martin (2000), stated  that  an  effective  EFL teacher  should use  L1  when  necessary  in  EFL classroom. Recenty,  there has  been a growing  interest in  the  use  of  L1 in monolingual  low  level  EFL  classrooms (Reis,1996; Cole,2001; Buckmaster,2000; Hawks,2001; and Toyama,2000). That  is believed  that  use  of  L1  in  the EFL  classrooms  may  be  helpful  in  providing   students  with a  secure  learning  environment.In  relation  to  the pedagogical  benefits  of  L1  when  in  language classes, Auerbach (1993) indicates that :

 

           ‘’its [L1]  use reduces  anxiety  and enhances  the  effective   environment  for  learning, takes  into  account  sociocultural  factors, facilities incorporation  of  learners’  life  experiences, and  allows  for  learner-centered  curriculum  development.’’(p.2)

 

           Although  it  is  assumed  that L1 use reduces anxiety  in  monolingual  language  classes (Allwright & Bailey ,1991), the  situation  could  be  different  in  advanced  level  classes.For  example, the  findings  of  the study by  Ayd?n (2001)  revealed  that some  advanced  level  students  showed  annoyance  about  L1  use.

  The  potantiel  advantages of  L1 use  are  discussed in  terms  of  grammer, classroom  management, vocabulary   and  methodogical  issuses  in  EFL  classrooms.L1  use  is  not  suggested  for  speaking  activites (Cole, 2001).As Atkinson (1993)  and Galloway (1993)  argue, communicative  language  teaching approach seems  to  avoid  addressing  L1 use.

 

1. Using  English  only, in  EFL  classrooms  is  possible  but  it  fails  to  take accounts  of  a number  of  factors.Many  EFL teachers  try  to  use  English as  much as possible  as  they  can  in  the classroom.They  give  instructions  in  English, they  require  students  to  ask  any  kind  og  questions  in  English and  they  say  students  should  use  Englisj  while  working  in  groups  and  pairs  with  their  friends  in  the  classrooms.These are  all probable  and  positive  things in an  EFL classroom.However  the  mother tonguecan  be  used  to   provide a  quick and  accurate  translation  of  an  English  word  that  might  take  several  minutes  for  the  teacher  to  explain.

 

            Using  English  only, in  EFL classrooms  can  lead  to  some  problems  because  there  would  be  no  guarantee  that  the  insructions  and  explanations  are  understood correctly,  Also  an  English  teacher  can  have  difficulties  in  general  classroom  management  if  he/she  insists  on  using  English  only   Depending  English    only  makes  students  feel  uncomfortable  if  they  have  some  problems  with  speaking  skills.In  addition  students  cannot  combine  the  two  languages  if they  are  restricted  to  use English  in  classroom.

Hopkins (1988:18) claims that ‘’if  the learner  of  a second  language  is  encouraged  to  ignore  his/her  native  language, he/she  might  well  feel   identity  threatened.’’

 

1.         Because  of  these  problems  caused  by  using  English  only, in  EFL classroom,teachers  should  use  mother  tongue  while  teaching  English  as a second  language.But  EFL   teachers  should  now  to  what  extend  they  should  use  mother  tongue  and  the  effects  of  using  mother  tongue  in  EFL  classrooms.By  taking  the  advantage  of  using  mother  tongue  in  EFL  classrooms  teachers  should  create  the  best  teaching  environment  for  their  students.

 

 

        This  study  aims  to  reveal the  opinions  of  mother tongue use in  teaching  tongue  use  in  teaching  English  in  EFL classes  by  showing  true  reasons  whether  EFL  teachers  should  use mother  tongue  or  not.Also, to what extend  mother  tongue  should  be  used  by  EFL  teachers  in  the  classroom.In  order  to  achieve  these aims, observation  methods  and  questionnaires  will be  used  and  the  results  will  be  held  objectively  by  the  researchher.

 

 When   the literature  on  L1 use in EFL classrooms  is thougt, there seems to be policital  and adeological  reasons  rather  than pedagogical  reasons behind the  challenging  debate on  L1  use (Auerbach,1993; and Hawks,2001). These idealgical / policital  reasons  date  back to the Americanization movement in the 19. centry.While this  movement  give  rise  the spread of ESL instruction, ELT methodology advocated the use of English-only instruction,for example as in direct method, in contrast to the earlier ones in which the use of learners’ L1 had been allowed,as in Gramer-Translation (Celce-Murcia,1991; Auerbach,1993; and Richard & Rodgers, 1986).

 

 

         With the  world war I,the number of immigrants increased in America.This immigration  movement made ESL instruction become  more important than ever because  those immigrants were working at  different jobs  and expected  to  speak good  English.This  Americanization  movement  influenced  ELT  methods.For  example; Direct Method, which emphasies  using  English only  with  no L1 was allowed  (Auerbach,1993).

 

        L1 use in ELT methodology  was not only affected  by the Americanization  movement  but it was also  affected  by  British policies.In the  late 1950s and  early1960s, English  was regarded as  a tool which helps  the spreading colonies  of  Britain.Therefore, L1  use had no  place  in  ELT.In a conference at  Makare Universty, Uganda in 1961, ELT  experts mentioned  that ;

 

• English is best taught monalingually
• The ideal teacher of  English is a native  speaker
• The earlier  English is taught, the  beter  the results
• The  more English is  taught, the  beter  the resul?ts
• If other languages are  used  too much, standarts of  English  will drop (Phillipson, 1992.p.185).

 

 

       According to Phillipson (1992), these five  principles say that  there is no place for  L1 in  ELT. The reason for regarding  use of  L1 in  ELT as a taboo is based on  theideological and policital reasons.Spreading English was English was such a  strong  purpose in America and Britain that using L1 was excluded in  ESL during Amercanization movement.

 

 

          Researches   in  ELT showed that L1 can be a very important source.The belief that L1 use might play an  important  to improve the  second language has  received great attention in bilingual education (Collingham, 1988; and Piasecka,1988 ) lists the advantages of using learners’ L1 in ESL classrooms like:

 

1. Valuing and building on the knowledge that learners already have and bring to the classroom.
2. Raising the position of  languages  used by ethnic minorities in Britain, which in turn raises the self esteem of the speakers of those languages,making them more confident and effective  learners.
3. Raising language awareness.Learners already have some linguistic skills and knowledge; by thinking about their own and other languages, a class will learn  more about language and languages in  general.This can speed up aspects  of  learning and  increase learners’ tolerance of one another’s  diffucilties.In  this way students cooperation is  raised and classroom Dynamics are improved.
4. Using learners’ first language improves learning English.
5. There is less similarity of  the lesson content being patronizing or childish where  the contributions   students can make in L1 are recognized as important.
6. Fostering  cooperative  and independent  learning.
7. Reducing  learner anxiety and increasing confidence and motivation in  the classroom.
8. Gaining every learner, no matter how limited their knowledge of English, to support to the lesson in many waydepending on their  previous experience (p.82).

 

Seeing the  list above, Collingham (1988) states the importance of L1 use in bilingual education.

 

     Atkinson (1987 ) makes a classification  with nine principal occasions and activities  for which L1 use is useful in teachinh / learning process and environment.These nine occasions  (at all levels), giving complex instructions (at early levels), cooperation among learners (at early levels), discussion of classroom methodology (at early levels), presantition  of  language (mainly at  early levels), checking for sense, testing, development of useful learning strategies (advanced  levels). But he mentions not use L1 too much in EFL classes.

 

          Piasecka (1988 ) suggests possible occasions in  which mother tongue (L1) should  be  used.These occasions are argument of the  syllabus and lesson, setting  the scene at the begining og  class, profiling  and record-keeping, resolving individual areas of diffuculty, classroom management,personal contact, language analysis, instructions or prompts, error explanations,assessment of comprehension, presantation  of  rules, governinf gramer / phonology /morphology and spelling, cross-cultural issues discussion, assessment and avaulation of the  lesson.She says that it is  not only important to know the levels of learners but also the content and the format of the lesson would determine the use of L1 in EFL classes.

    

       

               Piasecka   (1988)  states that, L1  is  important  in  ESL  classes.Students levels  of proficiency  in  English  should  be  based on  the  amount  of  L1 use. At  first stages, learners’  knowledge  in  English limited.Therefore tjeir  L1 knowledge could be used to  help  them  improve their English.As learners’ proficiency  level increases, the amount of  L1 use should decrease.

 

              With  the  knowledge  of  her  observations  and experience Collingham (1988) also  suggests  nine  occasions   in  which  L1  use can be  helpful in  EFL  classrooms : to  discuss  the sykkabus, to develop ideas to  Express  them  in  the L2, to reduce inhibitions  or affective  blocks  to  L2 production, to  elitic language and discourse  strategies, to  teach vocabulary, to  teach  phonology, to  provide explanations of  grammar, to facilitate  comprehension  questions, to  provide essential  information  to  minimize the  change  of  misinterpretation.

 

         

 Here  is  a summary  of  the occasions  for L1 use by the  there researchers (figure 1 ):

ATKINSON (1987)

 PIASECKA (1988 )

COLLINGHAM  (1988)

 

1. eliciting language

 

2.checking

 

3.giving complex instruction

 

4.co-operation among learners

 

5.discussion of classroom methodology

 

6.presantation and reinforcement of language

 

7.checking for sense

 

8.testing

 

9.development of useful learning strategies

1.negotiation of the syllabus and the lesson

 

2.setting the scene at the begining of class

 

3.profiling and record keeping

 

4.resolving individual areas of difficulty

 

5.classroom

6.personal contact

 

7.language analysis

8.instructions or  prompts

 

9.explanation of  errors

 

10.assessment of comprehension

 

11.presantation of  rules,governing gramer

 

12.discussion of  cross cultural issues

 

13.assessment and evaluation of  lesson

1. to discuss syllabus

 

2.to developed ideas to Express them in L2

 

3.to reduce inhibitions or affective blocks to L2 production

 

4.to elitic language and discourse strategies

 

5.to  teach vocabulary

 

6.to  teach vocabulary

 

7.to provide explanations of gramer

 

8.to facilitate comprehension questions

 

9.to provide essential information to minimize the  change of misinterretation

 

 

 

1. Figure 1. Suggested Occasions for L1 Use (Atkinson,1987,Collingham,1988 and Piasecka,1988)   

 

 

   As it is  seen in the Figure 1, the ocasions in  which L1 could be  used are similar.But these suggested L1 occasions are context,specific.Also, there is no support for  the validity of  these occasions.These occasions can  vary in different EFL classroom contexts.

 

 Advantages of L2-Only Classes

 

         In  ELT,teacher talk is  very important input for learners because  teacher talk plays a significant  role in  L2 acquisition (Cullen,1988).It  has  been believed  that learners’   fullest  competence of  the target  language environment (Cchaudron,1988;  and Ellis, 1994).Turnbull (2001)  states  that,  this positive relation  between  teacher’s   language use  and  the students’  test  scores  hasn’t  any  statistical  support.

 

 

 

     One  of  the findings  in  a  research  conducted  with ESL educators  in USA  also  showed  that educators  strangly  believed  that.

 

      ‘’The   more  students  are  exposed   to   English,  the  more  quickly  they  will   learn; as  they   hear  and  use   English, they  will internalize  it  and  begin  to  think  in  English.’’(Auerbach, 1993, p.14 )

 

 

Educators   thoughts  reflects  the  opinions of  many  other  teachers  but,  Ellis (1994 ) and  Gass (1988)  points  out  that there  is  little  research, which consistently  supports  this  view  ( Ellis  1994 ;  and  Gass 1988 ).

 

 

1.          Related   to  the  L1  use  in  monalingual  EFL  classrooms, many  discussions  have  been occurred.One  of  these  discussions  has  focused  on  the  relation  between  L1  use  and  input  issue.Some  researhers  states  that  EFL  teachers should  use  L1  at  a minimum  degree  because  learners  have  little  exposure  to  L2  outside  the  classroom.Consequently,  EFL  classrooms   and  teachers  are  the  only  L2  sources  of  input  for  EFL  learners  (Polio & Duff, 1994; and Turnbull, 2001 ).Others, state that  exposure  to L2 does not guarantee that  L2  input  would  result  in  input  (Chaudron,1985; Ellis 1994; and Gass, 1988 ).

 

 

Advantages  of L1 (mother tongue) Use

 

     With  regard  to  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  L1  use, it  has  been suggested  that the  use  of  L1  might  help  reduce  learner’ anxiety, which  facilitates  the  lerarning  process (Krashen, 1982; Reis, 1996; Cole, 2001; and Auerbach, 1993 ).

 

 

    The  advantage of  L1  use with  respect  to  reducing  anxiety  reminds  us  of  Krashen’s  affective fitler  hypothesis.In his affective  fitler hypothesi Krashen (1982 )  states  that allowing  students  to  use L1  helps  them  lower  their affective filter.

 

1.      Reis  (1996 ) states  when  teaching  English  through  English, he observed  that his  students  were not  content  with  his  teaching  English throuh  English.He  tried  to  convince  them  them  about  the  advantages  of  the  mazimum  use  of  English  in  the  classroom, but  he  cannot  succeed. As  a  result, he  come to a conllusion  wit  his students  and  they  together  decided  to allow  five  minutes  of  L1  use  in  each  class sessions. This  five  minutes  of  L1  was called  the ‘’L1 break.’’ As  Reis (1996 )  puts  L1  break, it appearead  to  have  impressive  effect  both  on  him  and  the  students by reducing  students’  affective   fitler   and  created  a  friendly  nice  classroom  environment.

 

 

      Cole  (2001)   also supports  the  thought  that  L1  is  the  most  useful  at  begining  and  low   levels  because  it  can  provide  students  with  a  more  secure  and  easy  to  learn  atmosphere  in  class.However,  the  situation  would  be  different  in  advanced  level  monolingual  EFL  classrooms. Ayd?n (2001)  investigated  the  sources  og  EFL  classroom  anxiety  in  advantec  level  speaking  and  writing  classes  at  the  faculty  of  ELT  department.The  results  showed  that  L1  use  in  the classroom  is  one  of  the anxiety  sources.Some  students  reported  annoyance  about  L1  use  while  others  found  L1  use  helpful.

 

       One  yje  other  hand, it  is  believed  that  frequent  L2  use  makes  students  to  feel  anxious.Levince (2003)  made  a  research  to  test  this  belief.In  her  study, she  investigated  the  hypothesis  that L2  use  by teachers  and students  correlated  positively  with students’  sense  of  anxiety  about  L2  use. The  results  of  the  research  showed  a  negative  relation  between  reported  amounts  of  L2 use  reported  L2-use anxiety.This  result  suggests that :

 

        ‘’…   greater  L2  use  may  not translate  into  greater  anxiety   for  many  learners   and that many students feel  comfortable with  more  L2 when that  is  what  they are used to.’’ (Levince,1003, p.355)

 

 

 

As s consequence; it  is  not  possible  to conclude that L1 reduces  anxiety  and, so  helps  beter   learning  of  English.Similarly,  it  cannot  be  said  that  L2  use is  more  beneficial  in  terms  of  lowering  anxiety.

 

L1 Use in Communicative  Language  Teaching

 

         Despite  the thought  that L1 use  reduces  learners’  anxiety  and facilitate  their  learning  process, L1  use  has  not  been advocated  in  communicative  language teaching  and task-based  learning  methods  ( Duff & Polio,1990; Polio & Duff, 1994; Cook, 2001; and  Rolin-Ianziti, 2002). Although, experts  claim  that  communicative  language  teaching  has  referred to  neither  the advantages nor  disadvantages   of  L1  use, it  is  believed  that  L1  use  should  not  have  a place in communicative  classes  (Piasecka, 1988  and  Cook, 2001 ).

 

 

1.          Although, the  discussion  about  the  L1  use  in  EFL  classes  is  as  old  as  the  history   of  foreign  language  methodology, as Piesecka (1988) points out, there are no  bases  showing the  disadvantages   of  L1  use  or supporting  the  use of  L1.Many  studies  focus  on   the  occasions  in  which  L1  is  used  or  the  reasons  for  the  use of  L1  in  the classroom  rather  than investigating  the  effect  of  L1  use  on  learners’  performances,  which  could  provide  a  useful  solution  to  the  problem.

 

 

 

Occasions  of Reasons  for  and  Attitudes  towards  L1  Use

 

       The  researches  investigated  some  issues  about  whether  or  not to  use  L1  in  the  classroom.the studies  related to  L1  use have  focused  mainly on  teachers’  more than  learners’  use  of  L1  and their  reasons  for  L1  use and attitudes  towards  L1  use  have  beeb  investigated.

 

 

          Duff and  Polio (1990) concluded  a research  on  the  l!  Use  frequency, reasons  for  using  L1, perception  of  L1  use  and  attitudes  towards  L1  use  in  foreign  language  classsrooms  at  the  Unjiversity  of  California, Los Angeles ( UCLA). They  studied  three  issuses  related  to  L1  use  in  an EFL  classroom.First, the  ratio  of  L1  use  by the  teachers  in  the  classroom  was  examined. Second  issue  was  the  factors  related  to  the  use  of  L1  and L2.

 

1.       The  third  was  on  teachers’  and  students’ perceptions   and  attidudes  towards  the  use  of  L1  in  the  foreign  language  classrooms.13  different  foreign  language  classes and  their  teachers  were the  participants   of  the  study.The data  were  collected  through  audio-recordings, classroom  observations, student  questionnaires  and teacher  interviews.The  results  showed  that  teachers’  L1 use  changes  from  to 0  in  26  hours  of  smpled  classroom  sessions.This  wide changes  in  the percentages  was  explained  in  the  thre  factors  related  to  the  use  of  L1  and  L2.the analysis  of  audi-recordings, classroom  observation  and teacher  interviews  suggested  that  teachers’ L1 proficiency, language  type  taught, departmental  policy, lesson  content, materials  used  and  teachers’  formal  teacher  trining  might  have  had  an  effect  on  the  amount  of  L1  and  L2  use  in  classrooms.On  the  other  hand, the  findings  suggested  that  there  werw no  relation  between  teaching  experience  and  L1  and  L2  usage.It  was  reported  that  many  teachers  in  the  study  believed   that  trying  to  explain  a  point  in  L2  was  a  waste  of  time.Instead  L1  would  be  much  more  functional  and  suitable  and it  was  time. Some  teachers  stated  that L2  use  put  a  kind  of  pressure  on  students  although  frequent  L2  use  could  facilkitate  their  learning  process.Other  teacher  participants  said  that  they  used L1  rather  than L2 because  students  knowledge  of  L2  was  limited.

 

             In  another  study  by  Polkio and  Duff (1994)  revealed  when  or  for  what  function  Foreign  language  (FL)  teachers  used  L1.There  were thirteen  teachers  in  that  study  and  they  were  teaching  in  all  four  skills  in  monolingual classes  and  students  native  language  (L1)  was  English.The  teachers’  native  language  was  the  target  language (TL).As  in  the  previous  study, the researchers  used  audio-recordings, observations  and  teacher  interviews  to  collect  data  fort he  study.In  the  interviews  the  teachers  were  asked  to  state  how, when  and  the  extent  to  which  they  would  usually  use  English, L1  in  their  classrooms.Later, the classes were observed  and  recorded.When  the  teachers  were  asked  their  reasons  for  L1  use  in  FL  classes, they  stated  that  they  used  L1  to  take the  students  attention  on  important  issues  such  as  exams  and  quizzes, to  save  time  and  to create empathy, to practice  English, to  explain  unknown  vocabulary  items  and  there was  a  lack of comprehension.But in the interviews, some  teachers  said  that occasions  for L1  use  suggest  that  teachers  were not  aware  of  the  exten of  their  L1  useçPolio  and Duff (1994) state ‘’speakers in social  settings  are  often  simply  unaware  of  their  language  use  in  given  situation’’ (p.323).

   

 

1.                  Murhey  and  Sasaki (1998) invstigated  Japanese  English  teachers’  use  of  English  in  the  classroom.Secondly, the  teachers  explained  reasons  for  not  speaking  more  English.At  last,teachers’ facilitative  beliefs  and  strategies  they  used  to  increase  the  amount  of  English  use  in  the  classroom  were determined.The findings  of  the  study  showed  that  these  teachers’  use  of  more  English  in  their  classes  depended  on  their  experiences  in  their  teaching  carriers.In the informal  talks, the  teachers  claimed  seven  reasons  for  speaking  Japanese  instead  of  English  in  their classrooms.The  seven  reasons  were  these :  1. using  Japanese  is  more  comfortable, 2. to get  through  the information  faaster, 3. Using  Japanese  feels  more natural (as they  were  all  Japanese), 4. Principals,  parents  and  students  want  the  teachers  to  teach  for  the entrance  exams  which  is  in  Japanese, 5. Getting  through  the  book  is  possible  when  Japanese  is  also  used, 6. The    netrance  exam  does  not  test  English  listening  and  speaking, therefore  there  is  no  need  to  study  them, 7. The  textbook is difficult  so  needed  to be translated  into Japanese  so  the  students  can understand it.

 

1.             Murhey  and  Sasaki  (1998) tests  their  stu?dy  about  its  reliability  of  the  interview  data.They  suggest  that  current  estimates  of  English/L2  use  in  the  classroom  should  be   determined  by  the  help  of  various  methods  or  by  recording  thee classes ,  and  by  increasing  the  number  of  teacher  or  student  interviews.

 

1.            Jr. Schweerw (1999) made  a study  on  the  use  of  mother tongue (L1) in  english  classes  at  the  Universty  of  Puerto  Rico.The  aim  of  the  study  was  to  determine  the  frequency  and  reasons  of  L1  (Spanish) use  and  attitudes  of  teachers  and  students  towards  L1  use  in  the  English  classroom.Four  teachers  participated  in  this  study.The  data  of  the  study  come  from  two  sources: audio-recordings of  35  minute  samples  from  three  classes at  the beginning,  middle  and  the  end  of  the  semester  and  a  short  questionnaire  was  given  both  the  four  teacher  participants  and  the  19  other  professors  in  the  department.In  addition, a similar  questionnaire   about  the  attitudes   towards  the  L1  use  in  the  English  classes  was  given  to  the  students  of  all  the  professors  who  filled  out  the  questionnaire.the  students’  answers  to  the  attitude  questionnaire  showed  that  Spanish  should  be  used  to

 

 

 

Some extent in English classes because a majority o fthe students believed that the use of Spanish helps them learn English better. The teachers’ answers to the questions ‘If you use Spanish in your classroom,why do you think this may be more effective than using English exclusively?’ asked the reasons of L1 use in the classroom.The reasons given by the four teachers were as it shows:

 

 

            Teacher 1:”Sometimes it is more important for students to understand a concept tahn it is for that concept  to be explained exclusively in English.”

            Teacher 2:”In my writing courses, I use some Spanish because it helps students write beter reports. It also serves as an additional input to ensure that that they achieve the main objective of the course, which is the production of higher quality written work in English.”

            Teacher 3:”First of all I use Spanish to establish rapport with my students, and secondly, to serve as a model person who speaks both languages and uses each one whenever necessary or convenient.”

            Teacher 4:”I think students can identify better with a teacher who speaks to them in their own language, thereby letting them know that you respect and value their native language.”

 

Although the analysis of the recordings indicated the occasions where the four professors used Spanish, a statistical and descriptive report was not provided in the article.

 

            Turnbull(2000) also carried out an investigation to determine the reasons of 4 teachers’ use of French(L2) and English(L1) or a mixture of both languages in their core french classes in Canada. All the teacher participants were native speakers of English and experienced in the profession. The data were based on the observations which took place nearly 8 weeks—an average of ten class hours for each teacher, or an average of 400 minutes per class. In the classes, the same Project based teaching unit was taught. Although the data analysis was mainly based on the teacher talk analysis method used by Polio and Duff(1994),many of the classifications came out of the data.The transcripts were divided into functional units and each functional unit was engaged to one of the three  categories:social,academic or management.Each functional unit was coded as L1(English),L2(French) or mix(both languages).The results showed that the majority of the reasons for L1 and L2 use was academic based rather than social or management.

            Like Murhey and Sasaki(1998),Turnbull also discusses the limitations of his study. He points out that semi-structured interwiews with the teachers about their used of French and English would have enhanced the reliability of the data analysis. It is suggested that video-recordings followed by semi structured interwiews should be used to determine EFL teachers’ use of L1 and L2 in the classroom.

            In relation to attitudes towards L1 use, Al-Busaidi(1998) investigated teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards the use of L1 in EFL classrooms in Oman. The results showed that students’ level is the most  influential factors that effected a teachers’ decision to use L1 in the classroom. In addition, these teachers preferred L1 when explaining the similarities or differences between L1 and L2 in considering grammar and vocabulary. The students’ use of L1,on the other hand, was most frequent in group work activities in which students were to use the target language to communicate and practice. The findings also showed that the teachers’attitude towards L1 use in the classroom was negative whereas the students showed positive attitudes. Students in lower level classes were more positive  about L1 use when compare to higher level students. This findings supports the thought that there is a relation between EFL learners’ proficiency level and L1 use in the classroom.(Reis, 1996; Cole,2001; and Hawks,2001).

            Takahaski(1996) made a study on Japanese teachers’ L1 use in the classroom and its influence on the students. This study aimed at finding a)the percentage of English and L1 used in the classrooms, b)whether or not the teachers and students are satisfied with the percentage of English and L1 use, c) when both the students and teachers think the teacher should use L1 in class, and d) how much the amount of the teachers’ English influence the students. A questionnaire that investigated the four issues listed above was developed for students and teachers. The students of English classes and their teachers at the English department of Nagoya College completed this questionnaire. In addition to the questionnaires, &Japenese teachers’ ‘reading comprehension’ and ‘dialogue’ classes of English were tape recorded and semi structured interviews with both the teachers and students were held. The results showed that English was used from and 0 range.

            Most of the teachers said that they were satisfied with the amount of English they used in the classroom while they were not satisfied with the amount of L1 use. All teachers believed that L1 should be used when teaching grammar. The students in the study said that English rather than Japanese should be used in many occasions.

            Rollin-Ianziti(2002) conducted a study to determine when French teachers used English, L1 in the foreign language context at the University of Queensland. Four teachers teaching French participated in the study. These teachers’ classes were audio-recorded for about six hours in a week. During the recordings, the teachers were informed that their classes would be recorded for the use of L1 in their speech. The results showed that the four teachers used L1 for these purposes: a)translation, b)metalinguistic uses, and c) communicative uses.

 

            As the review of literature shows, there are some factors effecting L1 use in a language classroom. Some of these factors are, learners’ level of target language, teaching and learning context, materials, content and type of the lesson. Also we can infer from the literature review that the findings of one study investigating occasions, reasons for and attitudes towards L1 use in an EFL classroom might be different from those of other studies because issues are context-specific. Consequently, the finding of one study in the review of literature cannot be generalized. The data of such a study should be collected with the help of various methods or ways so the reliability of the data should not be questioned as Murhey and Sasaki (1998) and Turnbull(2000) stated.

            This study aims at finding out the opinions of teachers and students in EFL process about the L1 use. It also investigates the reasons and occasions of the L1 use in EFL classrooms. These studies and beliefs in the review of literature related to L1 use is regarded as a guide to our research.

 

            The Study:                                          

This study aimed at investigating basically two issues on L1 use in EFL classes. The study consists of two phases. In Phase 1,the occasions of and reasons for L1 use in EFL classes were investigated. In this phase, EFL students were asked how much mother tongue they used during English lessons. In the Phase 2,EFL teachers were asked how much mother  tongue they used during English lessons.

            Two group of people participated in this study,one was the instructors’ group and the other was the learners’ group. 3 EFL teachers and 62 EFL students of an Anatolian High School took part in this study. Two of the instructors are female an one is male. Forty one of the learners are female and twenty one are male. The level of the students’ is upper-intermediate and they all nearly have the same level of English and they are 16-17 year-old 10th grade students. One of the EFL teachers has 4 years experience, the other one has 8 years experience and the last one has 11 years teaching experience.

            This study aimed to investigate opinions of EFL teachers and students towards the use of mother tongue(L1). In addition to that, this study will also clarify the reasons of L1 use, and will show which occasions L1 is used in the EFL classroom. In order to achieve these aims a  descriptive design was held. At the end of the research the data were analyzed.

            In this study two questionnaires were used. One was given to  the EFL students while the other was given to the EFL instructors of Anatolian H?gh School. Both instructor and student questionnaires aimed at investigating the following issues:

1)      When instructors and students in EFL classes use  L1 (mother tongue)?

2)       Why instructors and students in EFL classes use L1 (mother tongue) ?

3)       The occasions in which L1 is used in EFL classes according to the instructors and students.

The following steps were taken to produce the final versions of both the instructor and student questionnaire.

1. The L1 use occasions questionnaires was developed and adopted by the researcher. While developing the Belinda Ho Fong Wan Kam’s(1998) questionnaire was consulted. In additon, Atkinson’s(1987),Piasecka’s(1988) and Collingam’s(1988) suggestions on L1 use helped in developing the items in questionnaires.
2. After the questionnaires were developed according to researcher’s aims, researcher firstly distributed the questionnaires to the students(see Appendix A), the questionnaires were in two languages(Turkish and English)in order not to let any misunderstandings(see Appendix A and B).After the students answered the questionnaires at the beginning of the lesson,researcher collected the data of this study from the students.
3. Also these questionnaires were in two languages(Turkish and English) in order not to let any misunderstandings(see Appendix A and B).After they filled the questionnaires the data of the instructor questionnaire was colleceted.
4. At the end of the data collection part 62 EFL students and 3 EFL instructors stated their L1 use opinions and occasions.

      The data for this study were collected from the questionnaires(see Appendix A and B)about the L1 use  occasions in EFL classes of  Anatolian High School in the first term of 2007-2008 education year. To collect data a questionnaire was distributed to the students about the L1 use occasions in EFL classes and a questionnaire was distributed to EFL instructors about L1 use occaisons in courses they attended.

            For this study,multiple choice frequency questionnnaires were held both fort he EFL instructors and students.Questionnnaires were applied to three EFL teacher and sixty two students.The questionnaires were both in Turkish and English in order to be understand clearly by all of the participants.With the help of study the attitudes of the participants and occasions were learned fort he L1 use in the EFL classrooms.

                                                            

 

Data Analysis and Discussion of the Findings:

 

             In this study,L1(Turkish) use in EFL classes was examined in two phases.In the first phase occaisons in which L1 is used were investigated.The second phase was designed to determine the occasions in which L1 is used by the EFL teachers in their English courses.In order to determine the occasions,two questionnaires were held by the researcher.One was applied to the instructors and the other was applied to the students in EFL classes.3 instructors and 64 students applied to the questionnaire.

L1 use has long been discussed in ELT.Some researchers advocate the use of L1 in ELT classes based on the assumption that it reduces anxiety and therefore promotes better learning(Reis, 1996; Cole, 1998; Buckmaster, 2000; Toyama, Viney, Helgesen, Barnard&Edge, 2000; and Hawks, 2001).Others on the other hand,believe that L1 use is disadvantageous because it prevents learners from exposing the target language(Ellis, 1984; Chaudron, 1998 and Takahaski, 1996).L1 use in EFL classroom is still a controversial issue.The present study,therefore,investigated the opinions of L1 use in EFL classes.The study also investigated L1 use occasions in EFL classes.

            This study investigated the issues related to L1 use in two phases. In the first phase the occasions in which students use mother tongue was determined and in the second phase the occasins in which English teachers use mother tongue was determined.

            Both in the first and second phase, the data were collected through questionnaires applied to the students and teachers. To determine the occasions in which mother tongue(L1) is used 64 students and 3 teachers were given a questionnaire. The students and teachers questionnaire were different from each other.

            The results of the questionnaires revealed that instructors and students used L1(Turkish),on different occasions. Students stated that they frequently used L1 to chat with classmates(

About the Author

Gain Knowledge about Business through Business Essays

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These help students to make a business plan with a body of a narrative plan to establish a business. It guides about the real value of doing a business plan is not having the finished product in hand but in the process of research and thinking about business in a systematic way. It guides about dynamics of society that bring many challenges and opportunities to the business world with the size of a voluntary organisation to be a medium to medium-large business and the size of a partnership is usually being small to small medium. Business essays guides about the business intelligence that refers to a variety of software applications used to analyze raw data. It guides about the objectives of the business to maintain enough capital to continue on the business in a voluntary organisation whether the type of sector is tertiary in a partnership. It guides about the partnership that consists of two people to twenty one people who run the business while in a voluntary organisation it can range from 1 to as many as possible.It guides about the accuracy, reliability, completeness, or timeliness of the material or about the results to be obtained from using the material and the contract which is formed called deed of partnership which states how much capital each party has contributed and sharing of the profit and losses to cover the extra mile to ensure safety and security of business.

 

These provide the quality writing products for all academic students at an affordable price. These guide students about the international business which is a transaction between two or more countries and is primarily based in a single country that acquires share of its resources or revenues from other countries and comprises a large growing portion of the world’s total business.

Business essays provide student with a little extra help that he needs with guidance about a particular area of the MBA which add economics, organisational behaviour, finance, marketing, accounting. These also guide to review the whole course content, complete breadth of business topics with really affordable fees and one-on-one help from a professional with qualifications. It guides about how to adapt to circumstances of business that an organisation and its environment are interdependent and interact very intensively which acquires meaningful share of its resources or revenues that comprises a large growing portion of the world’s total business.It guides about the risks and more allowance for greater variety on different products and services.

 

These teaches the the ability to enhance or change situations in the business when needed.These teaches the responsibility to conduct business and carry on with the pllaning a successful business. It guides about the different models and variations of business plans to choose the right one specific to the type of business as having a business and knowing what to do with it are very separate issues and creating a well-executed business plan is very important. Business ethics in the operation of national and multinational corporations are important. The job of the business development professional is typically to identify new business opportunitieswhether that means new markets, new partnerships with other businesses, new ways to reach existing markets are aspects that should be dealt while owning a business. Motivation is the best concept used in business teaches the

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Essayservices assists solution to those students who want to be successful in academics as well as remain active in social life. It preserves the chance to get free time for students. These improve the writing skills of students.

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Essayservices assists solution to those students who want to be successful in academics as well as remain active in social life. It preserves the chance to get free time for students. These improve the writing skills of students. Business essays motivates students to do business in the interested field.

motivates students to do business in the interested field.

as the wants, and beliefs that drive an individual are clearly understood using this which is the basis of what people work for and keeps them doing things they otherwise would never be done. People act in a whole new manner when they are motivated by something and gives them a whole new perception of the task at hand, so this concept serves the best.

 

About the Author

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Essayservices assists solution to those students who want to be successful in academics as well as remain active in social life. It preserves the chance to get free time for students. These improve the writing skills of students. Business essays motivates students to do business in the interested field.

Advice about a “study trip” in Los Angeles?

Hello everyone! I’m an italian girl and I need your help! As you can see I don’t speak a good english and I want to improve it. I have the chance to take an English course at the University of California in LA for the entire month of March 2010. The problem is that in that period I have also lessons in Italy at the University. I have read that the Los Angeles public transport sucks, and so it’s difficult visit other places (San Francisco, San Diego, Las Vegas, Tijuana ..). Obviously the purpose of the trip would be to learn English, but I would also visit some place during the weekend! I need advice from someone who has already been there.. thank you!!

LA transport sucks internally. intercity travel is okay. going to SF, SD, LV, Tj is easy. so no worries. enjoy!

Help with a French project!?

Its pretty simple, for my exposé I have to pick any country that speaks French and talk about some interesting stuff about it. I want to do Switzerland, but pretty much me and 75% of the rest of the class is going to study abroad in Switzerland next year(the reason why they’re taking the course in the first place) so I want to do something different.

I want to do a country specifically in Europe. Maybe Luxembourg? Anyone know what to talk about if I will present Luxembourg or some other French-speaking European country?
EDIT.. maybe Monaco.. that seems interesting! Anyone know about Monaco?

Besides France in Euorope I’m not to good and what speaks French…I know there are others not in Europe you could easily do like Canada (Quebec), Even the US (Louisiana) but there is Monaco, Ivory Cost, Belgium, Congo,

B2B Telemarketing in Singapore Can be Your Ticket to Success

The city-state of Singapore has one of the most open markets in the world. It is because of this reason that many industries there are highly competitive. As compared to Hong Kong and New Zealand, Singapore was ranked higher than these two other city-states in terms of being the best country to do business with.

During the year 2010, Singapore was placed third as the fastest growing economy in the world. The city-state just falls closely behind Qatar and Paraguay. Their economy is best described in one word: mixed. There is not a single industry that is thriving within the confines of the city-state. There are a number of business sectors that help with the growth of their economy and most especially their GDP.1

It is because of these facts that Singapore has been seen as one of the best choices to market a business’ products and services. Closing sales and building long-term business relationships with other companies located in Singaporean soil will most likely bring financial success to an organization.

Nonetheless, business owners are still challenged by the everyday fact that the right kind of strategy still needs to be applied to close those deals. In this case, b2b lead generation and appointment setting are the answers to that need. Generating b2b leads is a far more effective strategy than hardcore selling maneuvers. For one thing, it applies a more consultative way of promoting a business’ products and services instead of pushing them onto the prospect’s face.  Once the leads has been generated, setting meeting dates is the next step to a complete and profitable business deal. Meeting a lead face-to-face promotes the business in the most direct manner possible. The good thing about setting these appointments is that the transaction is nearing its closure. It is due to the strategy prior to this (which is generating the lead) that made this plan of action possible.

With these two marketing strategies in place, the next step is to choose the right medium to employ these marketing approaches. To give the marketing campaign a much needed boost in acquiring success, it is a very wise decision to outsource these strategies to a trustworthy outbound call center.

Outsourcing to professional telemarketers can bring various benefits towards the campaign and to the business. Some of them include:

A direct form of contact– Singapore is not exactly the same size as the Vatican city. Hence, traveling from place to place just to meet prospects is not the way to go if the business is planning to save on their marketing ventures. Through telemarketing, travel costs can be minimized thoroughly as prospects can be contacted within a single phone call.

Known expertise– Most telemarketing companies of late have already amassed contacting various companies in Singaporean soil. This has made them quite versed in the skills and arts of catching the attention of prospects from various business sectors and setting appointments with them.

An extensive database of leads– Reliable telemarketing call centers have business contact database from different industries, professions, and countries; which of course includes Singapore. Outsourcing to them allows for the business to expand the reaches of their market range significantly, thus boosting overall profit.

Knowledge on the spoken language– Singapore does not only have a diverse economy but also a mixed culture. As such, they are known to speak four main languages namely English, Tamil, Malay, and Chinese Mandarin. Expert telemarketers, with their amassed experienced, can mostly understand these spoken languages. This shortens out the language barrier between parties.

With these benefits and more, the marketing campaign for the business is sure to give out the best in terms of money-making results.

About the Author

Jayden Chu helps companies in Singapore and in other Asia Pacific countries increase their business revenue through lead generation and appointment setting services. He is a professional consultant for telemarketing services. To find out how you can increase your business revenue, go to http://www.callbox.com.sg

is cactuslanguage.com a genuine language website?

hi, i am learning english, and i want to enrol on an intensive english course, i searched online and the above named website claiming to offer an intensive english course in the location i want (Newcastle) popped up, however, i tried to find the location of the Newcastle School or the headquarters postal address, but this information doesn’t seem to be provided on the website which rose my suspicions of the genuineness of the site. i Wonder if anybody knows whether it’s an authentic site or not.

i don’t want to loose my money to a scam website.

thank you.

The postal address for USA office is at lower left of this link

http://cactuslanguage.com/en/home/en-us.php

There are one or two little grammatical mistakes on the page, which makes me think that whoever put it together either did not proof the page, or is not a native English speaker.

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Help getting to University?

Whats the best pathway for someone wanting to study Japanese at uni without going through yr11 and yr12 at school?

Would doing English yr11/yr12 courses at tafe be enough?

I’m 16 and currently studying Visual arts there . =D
I’ve studied Japanese since primary school to when I left ( Minus the first year of high school) and I’m still doing it privately with a Japanese woman. However shes still studing a uni to become a teacher =D)

Definitely take English, but also take another foreign language. If you want to study Japanese, you will probably get a foreign language degree, but for that you will need more than two languages.

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The main theories in Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Contents

1.   Introduction

2.     What is SLA and what accounts for the language produced by learners?

3.     The main theories in SLA .

3.1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(CA)

3.2. Error Analysis(EA) and Interlanguage(IL)

3.2.1 Error Analysis (EA)

3.2.2 Interlanguage (IL)

3.3. The Monitor Model

3.4. Universal Grammar (UG)

 

3.5. Socio-linguistic theories

4.      Conclusion

References

 

 

1. Introduction

The language produced by learners learning a second language is extremely varied. It can range from one learner to another in regard to many factors. These variations can be accounted for by a number of ideas including: first language (L1) interface, age differences, motivation, self-confidence, aptitude, anxiety, gender and social distance. In this essay I will define SLA and then outline five of the main linguistic theories. These outlines will form the basis for my analysis of the differences in language that are produced by learners. Finally, I will consider what level of impact these theories have and how they can account for these differences and, the many difficulties and successes that learners have on their way to learning a second language.

 

2. What is SLA and what accounts for the language produced by learners?

Saville-Troike (2006: 2) defines SLA as not just the learning of a subsequent language to that learnt in childhood but also the study of the processes involved and of those who are learning it. The language produced by learners changes as they learn the language and that language can differ from one student to another, even if they have the same L1. The following theories provide an insight into how and why this language may vary. Some are backed up by empirical data, others are not, but all have their strengths and weaknesses and they all have supporters and critics.

 

3. The main theories in SLA

3.1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

In terms of the principles of CAH, Gass and Selinker (1994: 59) state that it is “a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation”.Saville-Troike (2006: 34-35) explain that it focuses on the differences and similarities between the L1 and the Second Language (L2). This means that the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 play a crucial role in learners’ production.

Saville-Troike (2006: 35) also points out that there will be a transfer of elements acquired in the L1 to the target L2. This transfer is considered positive if the same structure exists in both languages and the transfer results in the correct production of language in the L2. However, it can also be negative if a language structure from the L1 does not exist in the L2 but the structure is transferred leading to the production of incorrect language. Arab students often omit the verb to be. For example, this book mine for this book is mine since both of them have the same meaning in Arabic /هذا الكتابُ لي /həðəlkɪtəbʊlɪ/. This kind of error might be made since the verb to be is rarely used in the present tense in Arabic. Because of this, Arab students may apply the Arabic rule to English. On the other hand, Arabic and English share the same idea regarding the position of object pronouns. The object pronouns are placed after the verb in English and Arabic. In contrast, with French, they occur before the verb.

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 30) say that the predictions of CAH, that all the errors made in learning the L2 are due to interface from L1, were shown to be unfounded. They claim that many studies and research explain convincingly that the majority of errors could not be attributed to the L1. In other words, CAH might not predict learning difficulties, and was only useful in the retrospective explanation of errors. This point considerably weakened its appeal. However, the heightened interest in this area did lead to the origin of Error Analysis.

 

 

 

3.2. Error Analysis (EA) and Interlanguage (IL)

3.2.1 Error Analysis (EA)

Mitchell and Myles (2004: 29-30) consider this approach to be influenced by behaviorism through the use of fundamental distinctions between the learners’ first and second languages to predict errors, adding that EA showed that CA was not able to predict most errors. They claim that the differences between L1 and L2 are not necessarily difficult, citing as an example the difference between English and French in terms of unstressed object pronouns.  These cause a problem for English speakers learning french, but not for French speakers learning English. Saville-Troike (2006: 39-40) observes that EA distinguishes between systematic errors, which are due to a lack of L2 knowledge and mistakes, which are made when the knowledge has been processed. She highlights some of EAs shortcomings including:

1.      Some people do not make errors because of L1 interface.

2.      Focusing only on errors does not provide information regarding what the learner has acquired.

3.      Learners may not produce errors because they avoid difficult structures. For example, Arab students avoid using models auxiliaries since they have difficulties in understanding their role in each sentence. They may use I want…, I need …., instead of could I have, I would like ……..?

Overall, EA is not good at accounting for variability in SLA data.

3.2.2 Interlanguage (IL)

Saville-Troike (2006: 40-41) states that the term IL was introduced by Selinker in 1972, “to refer to the intermediate states (or interim grammars) of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2″.

Ellis (1997: 19) hypothesises that the nature of variability changes during the process of L2 development in the stages below:

1.      One form for multi-functions e.g., I live in Manchester, last year I live in London, next year I live in Amman.

2.      Some forms have been acquired e.g. I live in Manchester, last year I lived in London, next year I lived in Amman.

3.      The various forms start to be used systematically. Here the student may write the forms correctly but still use the incorrect forms when speaking.

4.      The student uses the forms correctly and consistently.

3.3. The Monitor Model Theory

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 35) point out Krashen’s theory was based on five hypotheses which are:

1.       Acquisition – Learning hypothesis

Gass and Selinker (1994:144) refer to Krashen’s assertion that ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ are separate knowledge, and that language acquisition is a subconscious process. The acquirers of language are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language, but they rather develop a kind of correctness. This is certainly the case for young children learning their L1. On the other hand, language learning refers to the conscious knowledge of L2. The learners know the rules, they are aware of them, and are able to talk about them.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 148) criticise this hypothesis. They claim that it does not show evidence of the distinction between acquisition and learning as two separate systems. However, Krashen said that many can produce language fluently without having been taught any rules and there are many that know the rules but are unable to apply them whilst speaking (Lightbown and Spader 1999: 38).

1. Monitor Hypothesis

Krashen’s hypothesis states that what learners learn is available as a monitor (Saville-Troike (2006: 45). Learners will make changes and edit what they are going to produce. The language that learners have consciously learnt works as an editor in situations where they have sufficient time to edit, are focused on form and know the rule (Gass and Selinker 1994: 145-146). This conscious editor is called the Monitor.

There are variations in use of the monitor that affect the language that learners produce. Acquired language skills can lead to improved fluency but overuse of the monitor can lead to a reduction in fluency (Krashen 1988: 30-31). Moreover, Krashen (1988: 30-31) believes that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to ‘monitor’ use. He claims that the learners who use the ‘monitor’ all the time are ‘over-users’, often producing stilted language whereas, ‘under-users’ will often speak quickly but with a lot of errors. Learners who use the monitor appropriately are considered ‘optimal-users’. These find a good balance between speed and accuracy, continuing to refer to want they have learnt but acknowledging the importance of communication. He emphasise that lack of self-confidence is the major cause for the over-use of the ‘monitor’.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 149) criticise this hypothesis as they believe that the monitor is only useful in production but it is useless in comprehension since it consists of learned knowledge that is used to edit utterances.

1. Natural Order Hypothesis

According to the natural order hypothesis the acquisition of grammatical structures (rules) proceeds in a predictable order (Gass and Selinker 1994: 145). They add that in a given language, some grammatical structures generally tend to be acquired early while others are acquired late regardless of the L1. They say “the natural order was determined by a synthesis of the results of the morphemes order studies and are a result of the acquired system, without interference from the learned system”. Krashen cited the example that many advanced students in English will still not be able to apply the rule for the third person singular verb, where an –s has to be added to the verb, when speaking quickly.

1. Input Hypothesis

According to the input hypothesis, SLA cannot take place without sufficient and necessary comprehensible input (Mitchell and Myles 2004: 165). Acquirers develop competency over time by receiving comprehensible input to move their present level to the next. Gass and Selinker (1994: 146) emphasise that this hypothesis is central to Krashen’s description of acquisition and is a complement to the Natural Order Hypothesis.

1. Affective Filter Hypothesis

Krashen’s hypothesis suggests that not everyone has the same ability in learning a second language and that self-confidence, motivation and anxiety all affect language acquisition (Gass and Selinker 1994: 148). He proposed that an Affective filter acts as a barrier to language input. Krashen (1988: 38) explains that a number of affective variables play a crucial role in SLA. These variables include motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. He claims that learners who are highly motivated, self-confident and less anxious are better equipped for success in SLA. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and anxiety contribute to raise the affective filter which prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, if the filter is high, the input will not pass through and subsequently there will be no acquisition. On the other hand, if the filter is low and the input is understood, the input will take place and acquisition will have taken place.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 148) say that the filter and filter hypotheses explain the failure of SLA according to two parameters: insufficient input and high affective filter, or both.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 150) criticise the Filter Hypothesis because it does not explain how it works? Or how the input filter works? However, others see that it as something that can be seen and applied in the classroom and that it can explain why some students learn and produce better language than others (Lightbown and Spader 1999: 40).

3.4. Universal Grammar (UG)

The definition of UG by Chomsky (1976, as cited by Cook, 2001: 181-182) is “the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages … the essence of human language”. According to Chomsky, there are principles, which allow or prevent a specific structure from occurring in all human languages, and parameters, which govern ways in which human languages differ, usually expressed as a limited choice between two options. These principles and parameters are built in the human mind. In other words, children have an innate faculty that instructs them while learning of language (Mitchell and Myles, 2004: 33).

Saville-Troike (2006: 48-49) gives an example of a principle that Chomsky posited which is that every phrase in every language has the same elements including a head.  For example, a noun phrase has to have a noun, a verb phrase has to have a verb and prepositional phrase has to have a preposition. On the other hand, an example of parameter is the direction of the head. For example, Arabic is a head last language and English is a head first language.

According to Mitchell and Myles (1998: 61-68), UG can account for variations in learner language as follows:

 

1. No access hypothesis

This hypothesis suggests that UG becomes less accessible with age and therefore its involvement will not be available to adult learners. Chomsky believes there is a critical period for language acquisition and UGs application. Adult L2 learners have to be prepared to apply more general problem-solving skills. Evidence by Johnson and Newport (1989, as cited by Mitchell and Myles, 1998: 65) showed that immigrant children mostly become native-like speakers of L2, but their parents very rarely do. I believe this supports Chomsky’s hypothesis.

 

2. Full access hypothesis

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 61) state that the processes of L1 and L2 acquisition are very similar.  The differences noticed between them are due to the difference in cognitive maturity and in the learner’s needs. It is clear that L2 learners acquire principles and parameter settings of L2 which are not similar to L1 settings. Evidence given by Flynn (1996 as cited by Mitchell and Myles 1998: 66) explained that Japanese L1 learners of English as L2 successfully acquire L2 head parameter settings. They use principles in English which do not operate in Japanese.

 

3. Indirect access hypothesis

Mitchell and Myles, (1998: 61-62) point out that access to UG is only available to learners indirectly via the L1. They say “there will be just one instantiation (i.e. one working example) of UG which will be available to the L2 learner, with the parameters already fixed to the settings which apply in the L1″. Evidence given by Schachter (1996 as cited in Mitchell and Myles, 1998: 67) showed L2 learners’ failure to acquire principles absent in their L1 and/or failure to reset parameters.

4. Partial access hypothesis

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 62) say that some aspects of UG are still available and others are not. They give an example stating that principles may still be available but parameter settings may not.

In addition, White (2003:1-2) represents the application of the idea of UG to the area of SLA. She argues that SLA is constrained by principles and parameters of UG which is well explained in his book “Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar”.

In terms of criticism, Mitchell and Myles (1998: 70) say that UG as a whole has been exclusively concerned with syntax and the developmental linguistic route followed by learners when learning a L2. Thus, the social and psychological variables that affect the rate of the learning process are beyond its remit and therefore ignored.

3.5. Socio-linguistic theories

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 163) define sociolinguistics as the study of the effect of all aspects of soceity on the language in use. I will focus on the sociocultural theory discussed in Lantolf (1994).

Lantolf (1994: 418) emphasises that the origin of sociocultural theory refers to Vygotsky’s ideas.

In terms of variations in learner language, Vygotsky (1978 as cited in Mitchell and Myles, 1998: 146 ) defines the Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD) as ” the difference between the child’s developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’. Saville-Troike (2006: 112) says that one way is to help learners within the ZPD is through scaffolding which is defined as verbal guidance which an expert helps a learner to solve a specific task or collaboration of peers to solve a task that is difficult for any one of them individually. This means that little collaboration or guidance are the main reason for variation in learner language. For example, talk between peers could be helpful as in the following example:

Student 1:  could I say I am loving you, daddy?

Student 2: I am loving ………..

Student 1: yes, I do not stop loving my daddy.

Student 2: love is a state verb

Student 1:  yes, so I am love you, daddy.

Student 2: I think simple present form with state verbs?

Student 1:  Ah, I love you, daddy.

 

4. Conclusion

To sum up, it is clear that not one individual theory on its own can account for all the variations in learners’ language. Each one has valid points and I have shown some of the variations in language these hypotheses may produce. However, in a lot of cases, there is a lack of empirical evidence and further investigation into these theories may identify new learning and teaching methods.

Teaching methods have to take into account that L2 learners are varied. Learners do not have the same characteristics so they do not all acquire a L2 in the same way and at the same rate. Motivation, aptitude, age, social background and self-confidence affect the learners’ abilities. At the current time, and with the knowledge that is available to us, I think it is important for teachers to consider the most important aspects of each theory when preparing their lessons. Clearly not all theories will be addressed in every lesson, but with careful thought and consideration, the ideas may be applied and the results will show whether or not they are effective for that particular group of students.

 

Acknowledgements

Thanks also to my tutor, Dr Siân Etherington, who has supported and helped me such an article in Second Language Acquisition.

I am also grateful to My close friend, Faisal Mohammed Albisher, for everything.

References

Cook, V. (2001) Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (3rd ed). London: Edward Arnold

Ellis, R. (1997) Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Gass, S.M. and Selinker, L. (1994) Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Hillsdale, NJ/ London: Lawrence Erlbaum

Krashen, S. (1988) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. HemelHempstead: Prentice Hall

Lantolf, J.P. (1994) Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning: Introduction to the Special Issue, in The Modern Language Journal, 78(4), pp. 418-420

Lightbown, P.M. and Spade, M. (1999) How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Mitchell, R. and Myles, F. (1998) Second Language Learning Theories London: Edward Arnold

Mitchell, R. and Myles, F. (2004) Second Language Learning Theories (2nded).London: Edward Arnold

Saville-Troike, M. (2006) Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

White, L. (2003) Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press M

 

About the Author

Abdel Rahman Altakhaineh got his MA in applied linguistics from The University of Salford, in December 2010. He also got his B.A in English Language and Literature from Mu’tah University in 2006. The author’s  mother tongue is arabic language. He is also fluent in English since he did his MA in applied linguistics. Moreover, He learnt French (elementary French) at the school of language at Salford University from February to May 2010. Currently, the author is registerd in French, Spanish and German courses that have begun in 15th Nov 2010.